I LB 1025 

G9 
Copy 1 



»^^ 



knd How to Solve 'Iheiri. 



Am 



iinMriiimw iiMiiiiii»ii«iiiiiiii— |iiiiiiinjiM«iii«iiMnm>i>i< 



KENNETH SYLVAN. OUTHRI^; 




Class 
Book. 



^ 1? 



,,.-^^-%. 



Copyright N°. 



CDFJOUCHT DEPOSm 



TEACHERS' PROBLEMS 

And How to Solve Them 

A Hand-book of 

Educational History and Practice, 

or, Comparative Pedagogy, 

With an Appendix on the 

Mission and Limits 

OF THE History of Education 



by 
Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, 

Professor in Extension, University of the South, Sewanee. 

A.M., Sewanee and Harvard; Ph.D., Tulane and Columbia; 

M.D.. Medico-Chirurgical College, Philadelphia. 



COMPARATIVE LITERATURE PRESS 
P. O. Box 75, Grantwood, N.J. 






if* 



COPTEIGHT, 1917 
BY 

KENNETH SYLVAN GUTHRIE 
All Rights, inclttdinff that of Translation, Reserved 



/ 

OCT 24 1917 

©GU477192 



PREFACE 



This unpretentious handbook is not called a "History 
of Education" for reasons detailed in my pamphlet, 
entitled "Limits and Mission of History of Education." 
It aims at being a pioneer of the science of Comparative 
Pedagogy, the object of which is to develop current 
educational thought by comparative study. As the 
school has adopted as its centre the child, so must its 
science adopt as its centre not the various and some- 
times fanciful theories of frequently unfit popular 
idols, but the problems of the teacher. A subsequent 
volume will take up the problems of the supervisor in 
a similar comparative spirit. 

In the last chapter the teacher will find a number 
of practical self-helps for the guidance of his teaching 
method. This volume will be well fitted to serve as 
source-book for papers and discussions In teachers' 
conferences. 

In comparative work, excellence depends not on 
originality, but on faithfulness to authorities. As my 
own, therefore, I claim nothing but what none others 
may be willing to claim, and to my opportunities at 
Teachers' College, and to Mr. MacEvoy, I attribute any 
merit this work may be found to possess. My only 
desire has been to serve more completely and efficiently 
than others. Any failure to give due credit has been 
unintentional. The last chapter contains considerable 
original work. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

1. Imitation, the Basis of Primary Education. .. 5 

2. Habit, tlie Basis of Secondary Education. ... 18 

3. Specialization, tlie Basis of Tertiary Education 28 

4. Interest 40 

5. Self-Activity 50 

6. Self-Consciousness 63 

7. Discipline 80 

8. Method 94 

9. The Teacher Himself 123 

10. Conclusion 138 

(a) Interpretations of Education 138 

(b) Definitions of Education 139 

(c) Genetic Catalogue of Character-traits. . 147 

(d) Types of Historic Characters 153 

'(e) Calendar of Famous Men, for Object- 
teaching 154 

(f) Study-Course in School Ethics 170 

Appendix: Limits and Mission of History of Edu- 
cation. 



TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

BY GREAT THINKERS 



CHAPTER I. 

Imitation, the Basis of Primary Education. 

Imitation is tlie basic psychological principle of edu- 
cation, as seen not only in small children, but even in 
unreasoning animals. It is therefore the content and 
method of primary education, and it will be interesting 
to notice its application and development in the various 
successive pedagogical theories advanced down to the 
present day. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

In prehistoric education imitation is the simple, un- 
conscious guiding principle; but there is always some 
one man whose experience, wit, authority is greatest; 
who is recognized as exorcist, medicine man, shaman, 
prophet, priest, or wise man; who prescribes as abso- 
lutely as he gained that experience from others or 
iiimself. He is the primordial teacher, who is imitated, 

5 



6 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

and who thus sets the form of worship which is to be 
imitated by others, to teach them how to work. 



ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

In China the elementary schools are strictly limited to 
the practice of imitation. They are private, and volun- 
tary, supported by contributions, beginning at six years 
of age. They are accidental makeshifts, kept in vacant 
caves, sheds, rooms or temples. The schooling has 
absolutely no use except as preparation for examina- 
tion, and the ninety-nine hundredths who fail cannot 
return to ordinary avocations without loss of prestige. 
The mastering of the language is the chief object. 

The Hebrew psalms furnish apt, well-known ex- 
amples, though only rudimentary, of Chinese couplet 
writing. There must be perfect correspondence of 
noun, verb, adjective, participle, and besides inflexion 
of voice — which, as is well known, influences the 
meaning of words. This is the basis of all poetic es- 
says, and is as it were the culmination of imitative pro- 
cedure, glorified even by habitual, and individual ele- 
ments. 

Such as it is, primary education is widely diffused, 
more widely than in any other country, says Huc.^ 
Its importance may be judged by the fact that the six- 
year-old child, on entering, is given a new name.^ 

Much more even than among the Chinese was edu- 
cation primary among the Hindus. Being born into a 
hereditary caste, whose usages are to him the only 
salvation, his whole effort is perfectly to learn the 
numerous, insignificant, petty details of daily life. 
However, the Hindus had one caste entirely untrained 
— the Sudra, showing a significant limitation to even 
this primary education. This primary education began 
at the age of six or seven years.^ 



IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 7 

Unless our sources be really a Greek romance, we 
are led to believe that among the Persians a child re- 
mained at home until seven years of age,^ when 
he was given a name by an astrologer, and without 
corporal punishment developed truth, courage and 
justice by physical training in running, throwing and 
archery. Primary education made the child a ward 
of the state from seven to fifteen years of age. To 
the continuation of physical training were added a 
moral training by proverbs and prayers; the teachers 
being men over fifty years old, models of virtue and 
knowledge. 

In Egypt, the existence of several castes implied the 
imitative primary education of son by father, and for 
general subjects, by priests. Outcast mummy-wrap- 
pers were taught by their parents. 

But the chief significance of imitation lay in this, 
that the Egyptian soul expected to pass certain gates 
in the next world, after death, if not by memorized 
prayers, then by the possession of certain amulets or 
magical copies of parts of the Book of the Dead. The 
care in the imitation of these might therefore make all 
the difference between salvation and damnation. 

Among the Hebrews, primary education was, in 
earlier times especially, carried on in the home, boys 
being taught reading and writing, while the girls were 
at least taught the chief elements of their Scripture. 
The biographical methods of imitation of patriotic 
heroes was prominent, and was particularly important 
in the case of women, perhaps because of their dif- 
ficult social position. 

The Mahometans have schools in every village, 
their method of learning is rote memorization of the 
Koran; written by their one prophet, Mahomet. So 
exclusive is their imitation of this, that they allow no 
drawing, and in many cases no other books; until lately 
photographic cameras were not permitted in Constar\- 



8 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

tinople. The Koran, with reading and writing, is the 
main study. 

GREEK EDUCATION. 

The education of the Homeric period consisted less 
of instruction, than of imitation; though it extended to 
music, heaHng and rhetoric, as in the case of Achilles. 
The humbler needs of life, connected with food, cloth- 
ing and shelter, were thus taught in the home, while 
the higher duties of public service were received in 
councils, wars, and marauding expeditions.^ The 
direct association of the youth with an adult — the ped- 
agogue first, and the "inspirer" next — produced moral 
education by imitation in practical ways. Great 
results were thus attained. The pedagogue, though 
despised, exerted careful control; the voluntary sym- 
pathy of the inspirer awakened the best impulses of 
youth. While Oriental education therefore consisted 
of imitation of fixed form or dead custom, Greek edu- 
cation became that of a definite living model. ^ The 
primary education of Spartans began at six or seven 
yea'i of age, and lasted until twelve years of age, 
when the pupil assumed the man's toga. 

In Athens, the elementary period lasted from seven 
to sixteen years of age; the curriculum was gymnastics 
and music, with the boy in charge of a pedagogue. 

In the newer Greek education the elementary school 
period was divided between the palaestra or school for 
gymnastics, and a didaskaleon, or school for music. 

ROMAN EDUCATION. 

The principle of imitation was used by the Rornans 
with more purpose than perhaps by many another 
nation, in imitation of the parents, and familiarity 
with the biographies of heroes, as was indeed later 
realized in Plutarch's "Lives." The long continuance 
of their popularity shows how practical a source of 



IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 9 

inspiration were these ideals which later were continued 
by the Lives of the Saints and Biblical heroes. This 
imitation was the chief educational Roman principle, 
whereby the youth was to become pious, grave, rever- 
ential, courageous, manly, prudent and honest. This 
came not from imitation from the Orient, but from the 
sanctification of civic ideals. 

The School of the Literator (or Ludimagister) at- 
tempted no more than the merest rudiment of the arts 
of reading, writing and calculation. Their teachers 
were mostly slave pedagogues. 

Plutarch wrote the first book on the Training of 
Children. Quintilian strongly believed in object-les- 
sons in the form of concrete methods, giving the 
forms and names of letters with objects. Seneca put 
this in the form of a precept: "The result is gained 
sooner by example than by precept." 

The home was the center of education in Rome; 
schools can have been but late. The father's power 
of life and death made the family the social unit, as 
also legally, and morally; the father was personally 
responsible for the child's education. However, the 
mother had some independence, being her hus- 
band's companion and partner, and managerial assist- 
ant: she was nurse and governess, until the boy was 
turned over to the father's training. Later, of course, 
for the richer boys, in Horace's day, there were local 
paid private schools; but these were not strictly Roman 
in dignity. 

This process of organization continued until in 
Quintilian's day it was argued that public school educa- 
tion was far superior to the private tutorial variety. 

MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

If the Romans clearly grasped the value of imita- 
tion, and applied it by biographical example, continued 



10 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

by Plutarch in his "Lives," then Christianity supplied 
the biography of its founder, for the submerged masses 
to imitate. Christian life then became an imitation 
primary schooling, and Monroe says^: "It is the 
unanimous testimony of historians that for the first 
two centuries, and for a large part of the third, the 
life upheld by the Christian Church furnished one of 
the most remarkable phenomena in history: and that 
this purity of life was largely responsible for the rapidity 
and thoroughness of its conquest of the Roman world." 

The more definite primary Christian schooling was 
the training given to those who expressed a desire to 
become members of the Church; the secondary in- 
struction began with their reception as catechumens: 
they had been attracted by imitation. 

During Charlemagne's lifetime he founded a school 
in each monastery, and in the bishopric of Orleans, one 
in each parish. 

The primary education of chivalry was page-hood, 
extending from the seventh to the fourteenth year. 
Imitation was here wonderfully brought into play, the 
pages' continual personal attendance on the noble 
ladies giving not only beautiful example, in concrete 
form, but the length of the daily attendance intensified 
this imitation by habitual contact. 

A later form of primary education occurred when in 
its last organized readjustment in the thirteenth cen- 
tury against the Pre-Renaissance, the Roman Church 
developed a primary extension in the form of the 
Franciscans, whose imitation of St. Francis appealed 
with peculiar force to the common people, as biography 
ever does. 

At the universities, as with the trades, there was a 
primary imitative stage. The youth of thirteen or 
thereabouts registered with some master, who was re- 
sponsible for him unitl he was able to "define" and 
"determine." 



IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 11 

RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

The method of imitation was suggested only by 
Erasmus in teaching on the function of the mother, and 
the importance of play and exercise, and the necessity 
of keeping education vitally in touch with the life of 
the times. 

REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

The Reformation, or the Jesuit order, did little or 
nothing for primary education, unless the "continua- 
tion" two-hour schools combined with a trade, sug- 
gested by Luther, be so regarded. The tendency of 
the reformers to exalt trades, may very well have 
directed attention and interest to imitation of handi- 
work. 

MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
MONTAIGNE. 

Although Humanistic Realism said little if anything 
about elementary education, Erasmus, in his "System 
of Studies" goes to the root of the problem in basing 
knowledge of Words on that of Things, as the more 
important.^ If the pupil be furnished with things, 
the words will follow.^ Here lay the superiority of 
education at Sparta in things, over the words of 
Athens.io 

The best, from the best masters, is to be learnt at 
once, and the Greek language is to be learnt only to 
introduce their expression of the knowledge of the 
things supremely worth while, the only introduction 
needed to this is the ability to speak that language 
correctly. 

Montaigne held that if philosophy teaches to live, 
why is it not given to children early? Why teach men 
to live only when they have done living^^? 



12 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

The imitation of childhood should be taken advan- 
tage of for the teaching of foreign languages; these 
should be learned early from nurses, as happened to 
Montaigne himself, who read Ovid's stories in the 
nursery,^^ ^nd took part in Latin plays, thus employing 
his mimetic instinct. 

Nevertheless, Montaigne believed in vernacular 
schools coming first. ^^ 

MULCASTER. 

Mulcaster's psychological analysis began with "Art 
to conceive by,^^ and this no doubt well represents 
imitation, that by which the mind grows. 

COMENIUS. 

Comenius insists^ ^ that "a man can most easily be 
formed in early youth, and cannot be formed properly 
except at this age." His psychological analysis of the 
child's mentality is knowing oneself and all things. 

Comenius's Mother-School with its educational 
games, plays and occupations was really the origin of 
Froebel's kindergarten. Here are to be enforced^^: 
temperance, cleanliness, reverence, obedience, truth, 
justice, charity, industry, absolute silence, patience, 
politeness, courtesy, religion and piety, together with 
rudimentary notions of all the sciences. The Vernac- 
ular School took up all the same subjects, only in a 
more advanced manner, developing in mornmg in- 
tellect and memory and explanation, and in the after- 
noon repetition, with exercise of hand and voice. 

LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

Locke has much to say of imitation. He empha- 
sizes^'^ the maxim "pueris reverentia." Nothing 
should occur before him which should not by him be 
imitated — seeing that it will inevitably be reproduced 



IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 13 

on his mind's sensitized plate; thus both home and 
surroundings are fateful. Hence the crucial importance 
of securing a proper examplar as tutor. ^^ 

However, Locke cares little for the "performance of 
a single act," but that "children should be used to 
submit their desires and go without their Longings, 
even from their very Cradles." The first thing they 
should learn to know should be that they were not to 
have anything because it pleased them, but because 
it was thought fit for them. Evidently Locke was not a 
mother, who would be more like to realize the length 
of the period during which the child no more than 
imitates its surroundings. Yet, he says^^: "Children 
may be taught anything which falls under their senses, 
especially, their sight, as far as their memories only 
are exercised." The development from such simple 
bases to the most complex forms of knowledge is by 
observance of the inductive method. Self-denial must 
be taught early. ^o 

ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

We must consider both of Rousseau's earliest 
periods: from 1-5, physical; from 5-12, training of 
members and organs. From 12 to 15, therefore, 
curiosity is to guide the child. By Robinson Crusoe 
methods he will imitate and lay by useful information 
and training.21 Evidently Rousseau's primary educa- 
tion is much belated in the child's life, which indeed has 
no room for the university tertiary education. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
PESTALOZZI. 

Pestalozzi at Burgdorf worked out the importance 
of the object lesson, not merely to gain a knowledge 
of the word or thing, as Comenius had done, but as 



14 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

a means of mental development.^^ gy ^ continuous 
chain of graded exercises, a basis for the entire mental 
development of the child by observation is given. 

Mental arithmetic was developed to a great extent^^; 
drawing was changed from imitative to "intuitive" or 
vitalized; language changed from the spelling to 
phonetic and syllabic methods; geography was to be 
begun from the home yard; singing was secularized, 
and used for influence on moral feelings and training. 

As indeed appears from Pestalozzi's life-experiences, 
his work was chiefly confined to elementary schools, 
and Herbart points this out definitely, considering it as 
a foundation for his own additions.^* 

This teaching by observation^^ is analyzed into num- 
ber, form and language. We are to observe, 1, how 
many and what kind of objects; 2, their appearance, 
form and language; and 3, their names. On a man 
the result of this process is the 1, power of recognizing 
unlike objects; 2, stating their number, and 3, repre- 
senting objects, number and form by language, un- 
forgetably. Therefore the immutable law of the art of 
education is to start from, and work within this three- 
fold principle. 1, We should teach to look on every 
object as separated from its environment; 2, to teach 
its form, size and proportion; and 3, to teach the words 
and names descriptive of objects known to them. 

FROEBEL. 

While Comenius, in his "Mother-School," had 
planned the organization of child's play, it was Froebel 
who, at Blankenburg, in 183 7, actualized it in his kin- 
dergarten. It was a new field and hence offered least 
resistance. Its fundamental thought^^ was to aid the 
child to express himself, and thus produce develop- 
ment. The acquisitive and assimilative processes, here 
usually dominant, are now subordinated to develop- 



IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 15 

iiient. They are only stages in the expression of the 
constructive process. This self-expression is triple, 
through gesture, song and language. The told story 
was to be mimetically re-expressed in gesture, song or 
creative reproduction. This process of creative repro- 
duction is at bottom imitative, and hence well carries 
out the fundamental principle of all primary education. 

MONTESSORI. 

Montessori employs imitation to the extent of in- 
sisting on great ' accuracy of the teacher, without 
naming or specially stressing it as the basic principle of 
learning.27 It is not to be disturbed by fault-finding 
of the teacher, and errors are to be brought out by 
silence and repetition. Imitation is implied as the 
method by which spontaneous activity works. 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 

The elementary schools of Germany are of various 
kinds, for various social strata. There is the Volks- 
schule (after the kindergarten), without admission fee, 
for the poorest. Then there are the Mittel-schulen, 
which charge a little. Then there are the Pro-gym- 
masia, or classes preparatory to the gymnasia, and 
other kindred institutions. On the whole the primary 
school is a very efficient institution, attempting to give 
the foundations in the mother-tongue. 

FRENCH EDUCATION. 

Primary education in France is as elaborately sys- 
tematized as its continuing secondary course; there are 
also primary "mother's schools," which correspond to 
kindergartens. Thursday afternoon walks^^ are 
utilized for object-teaching. The nature-work is par- 
ticularly strong; in the beginning class, acquaintance 



16 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

with the simple facts of common knowledge, direction, 
time, seasons, distinctions of animals, mineral, and 
vegetable kingdoms; in the preparatory classes, the 
occupations and products which touch their daily life — 
the farmer, the miller, the baker, the vinegrower, cloth- 
ing, fuel, metals, means of locomotion; in the seventh 
form, domestic and wild animals, birds, fish, insects, 
the forest, the field, the garden; in the eighth form 
materials employed in construction, whence obtained, 
and hpw used, the winds, the different forms of water, 
volcanoes and fossils. Applied Science is perhaps a 
French specialty, and is well exemplified by Figuier's 
works. 

F^nelon particularly emphasized the educative value 
of imitation by his doctrine of indirect instruction, 
deriving it from observation of interesting stories 
and fables, so that everything outside the direct aim 
of the lesson may be indirect instruction. Applying 
this he wrote for the Dauphin the Homeric story of 
Telemachus, Dialogues of the Dead, and minor fables. 

Not far removed from this was the Jansenist's and 
Rollin's insistence on both formulation and application 
of objective methods. 

Another reform in elementary education was the 
attempt of Lasalle and the "Christian Brothers" to do 
for elementary education and the working people what 
had been done for secondary education and the higher 
class people by the Jesuits. They effected a lasting 
improvement in French primary education. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

The American primary school system — the kinder- 
garten — has spread with remarkable speed, and no 
child in any of the larger centres need lack its psycho- 
logical training. The elementary school system may 



IMITATION, OR PRIMARY EDUCATION 17 

not hold, but certainly receives practically all the 
children outside of those going to private schools. Its 
organization is one of the largest and costliest in the 
history of society, in any place and time. The power 
of imitation is well understood and used in the kinder- 
garten and in the object-method in the higher grades. 
Edward A. Sheldon,^^ at the Oswego Normal School, 
promoted object* lessons on the Pestalozzian plan.^^ 



1 Compayre, 13. 2 MacEvoy, 
6. 3 Painter, 18. ■♦ MacEvoy, 
16. 5 Monroe, 63. 6 ib., 98. 
7 lb., 231. 8 lb., 445. » Mon- 
taigne, Education Essay, 201. 
10 Monroe, 457. n Mon- 
taigne, Education, 194, 5. ^^ 15^ 
209. 13 Monroe, 458. 14 jb., 
466. 1^ Great Didactic, 7. 
16 1b., 28. 17 Locke, Theory 
of Education, 70, 71. is lb., 



75. 19 Monroe, 521. 20 Locke, 
Ed. Th. 32-35. 21 Monroe, 
562. 22 lb., 607. 2 3 lb., 619. 
2 4 lb., 623. 25 Pestalozzi, How 
Gertrude Instructs, 87, 88. 
26 Monroe, 665. 27 Montes- 
sori, Method, p. 225. 2 8 Far- 
ringdon, p. 263. 29 1823-1897, 
in New York. 30 Por Ameri- 
can Schools, see Brown, E., 
Making of our Middle Schools. 



18 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



CHAPTER II. 
Habit, the Basis of Secondary Education. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

Spencer saye: "The least developed people are the 
most averse to change," which would result from in- 
dividual initiative, or specialization, the psychological 
basis of tertiary education. They remain therefore in 
the domain of secondary education, which is based on 
the formation of habits, and the acceptation of cus- 
toms. These appear as doctrines, secrets or rituals of 
initiation, in which the neophyte has nothing to do but 
exercise imitation of the incantation, or oracular divina- 
tion of the leader, teacher, shaman or priest. 

The philosophical fiction of a "Social Contract" 
(of J. J. Rousseau, Hobbs, and Locke), by which 
certain individuals were supposed to unite to live to- 
gether in a society, is seen to be a "flareback," a mis- 
taken anachronism. The animals travel in schools, 
flocks and herds, and the primitive man existed in 
tribes, or clans, long before he came to self-conscious- 
ness, let alone before he could have made a "social 
contract," which could not be verified as ever having 
existed anywhere; and by which, all the rest of the 
human race was ever after bound. The rules of inter- 
national law are not yet universally observed, even in 
our own day. Individuality could not appear before 
self-consciousness; and must not be mistaken for un- 
tutored impulse, and the mechanism of habit. 



HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 19 



ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

Habit, recapitulation, is the chief characteristic of 
Chinese education: "What Heaven has conferred is 
called nature; an accordance with nature is called the 
path of duty; the regulation of this path is called in- 
struction." In those countries life's occupations and 
relationships have not varied for centuries. 

Memory, though based on imitation, draws its per- 
manence from habit. The memorizing and retention 
of the classics, the foundation of Chinese composition 
of essays, is peculiarly a secondary school activity. 
"The object of the teacher is to compel his pupils, 
first, to remember; secondly, to remember; thirdly, 
and evermore, to remember." The pupil "backs his 
book," to insure thoroughness, and then "the atten- 
tion of the scholar is fixed exclusively upon two 
things — the repetition of the characters in the same 
order as they occur in the book (imitation), and the 
repetition of them at the highest attainable rate of 
speed" (habit). 

In India^ secondary education admits the three high- 
est castes; but the warriors and merchants make use of 
this secondary education as "finishing courses," to fit 
them for the wants of practical life, and official civil 
position. 

In Persia, secondary education seems to have some- 
times been limited^ to military training, from fifteen to 
twenty-five years of age. 

In Egypt, secondary education consisted of writing 
and mathematics for the third caste, while the upper 
two added sciences, language and music. But the chief 
significance of the memnonical education for the 
Egyptian was that, by accurate reciting of certain 
memorized prayers, passage through certain gates in 
the next world was to be attained. Among the Hebrews 



20 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

secondary education was probably combined with the 
primary at the synagogal schools, and memory-work, 
of the Scriptures and rabbinical writings the chief 
subject. 

GREEK EDUCATION. 

The formation of habit, the athletics of the soul, was 
among the Greeks produced by music — which included 
all forms of art presided over by the nine muses: 
poetry, drama, history, oratory, the sciences, and 
music proper,^ particularly singing, and the musical 
recital of the Homeric poems.^ It was this that pro- 
duced personal worth or nobility, by which the free 
man was as superior to the slave, as the Athenian 
citizen was to the citizen of other cities. This har- 
mony was to reduce the soul to agreement with itself. 
The importance of this phase of education appears in 
Plato's attempt, in his "Republic," to limit the poetry 
and music learnt by the children^ to what might not 
conflict with their moralization. 

Thus Greek education^ was a formation of habits by 
doing, rather than learning; it was the shaping of con- 
duct. When the habit is once formed by exercise, 
training must be followed by instruction in order to 
rationalize it, replacing arbitrary authority by reason 
as basis of virtuous conduct. 

Aristotle taught that what nature has done for the 
character of the individual is beyond man's control; 
all that can be done is to train the individual through 
the formation of habit, '^ the subject matter of ethics, 
on which he wrote the first great treatise. 

Spartan secondary education occurred between 
twelve and eighteen years of age, when the pupil 
entered into the class of ephebes or cadets, where he 
received strict military training. 

Athenian secondary education consisted of gymr 



HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 

nasia, from sixteen to eighteen years of age, with 
training by conversation with elders, attending law- 
courts, banquets and theatres. 

Public education being limited to the free, it con- 
tained no manual training; the slaves and artisans 
learned their trades by apprenticeship, or by actually 
doing the work. Perhaps the Spartan ephebic train- 
ing from eighteen to twenty might be considered a 
kind of definite manual training. However, in newer 
Greek education, the poorer boys at fourteen or fifteen 
were set to learning a trade, so that Socrates was not 
ashamed of being a sculptor. 



ROMAN EDUCATION. 

The secondary process of Roman education was 
without a doubt habitualizing the imitated virtues. 
Their education was one of "doing" rather than 
"learning." Certain activities were undertaken to 
form certain approved habits. Rationalizing instruc- 
tions were never added thereto, except as an im- 
ported, engrafted process. 

The Roman secondary school was that of the 
"grammaticus," an organized institution with elab- 
orate method and fixed curriculum, which received 
public support. It taught grammar and literature, 
systematized as the seven liberal arts: grammar, 
rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music and 
astronomy — medicine and architecture being some- 
times added. Gymnastics was taught only in connec- 
tion with military service; dancing was learned at 
home. Quintilian as well as Cicero advises that the 
memory be trained by using choice selections. 

In Rome, man was perhaps most perfectly social- 
ized; inasmuch as "justice" was maintained among 
men by the state's enforcement of the balance be- 



22 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

tween rights and duties. The elaboration of life 
in these terms were the Romans' great task and great- 
est contribution to civilization. They have left con- 
crete meaning to the following standard terms: 
1, piety, consisting of reverence and filiality; 2, mod- 
esty, with reverence; 3, manliness (or firmness, char- 
acter, "constantia") embraced fortitude; 4, prudence, 
honesty, and earnestness ("gravitas," graveness, 
sedateness, sobriety and dignity). These exercised 
individually constituted duty; but if exercised towards 
the state they formed justice. The word virtue 
("virtus") among the Romans meant, and continued 
to mean, manliness. "Life in terms of virtue is the 
idealistic formulation of life; life in terms of duty is 
the moral conception of life as formulated by the 
practical man."^ 

Quintilian thought the public school preferable to 
the private tutor. 



MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

The Christian secondary education, the formation of 
habits, was the training given to catechumens, in 
which they proved worthy of admission into full mem- 
bership by baptism. 

Later, in chivalry, the secondary education consisted 
of squirehood, extending frequently from the fourteenth 
to the twenty-first year. While each noble held his 
own court, the social benefits of schools were gained 
by sending their sons to serve in other courts, which 
custom may have arisen from, or coalesced with, that 
of taking hostages, to insure peace and co-operation. 

A later form of secondary education — a sort of 
"extension movement" — occurred when, in its last 
organized readjustment in the thirteenth century 
against the Pre- Renaissance, the Roman Church de- 



HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 23 

veloped a secondary organization called the order of 
the Dominicans, whose intellectual discipline appealed 
to most educated middle-class people, and taught them 
habits of thought and reasoning. 

At the universities, as with the trades, there was a 
secondary stage of education, that of the "journey- 
man." The student studied with several masters, and 
taught younger boys. 



RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

In Vittorino da Feltre's Mantuan school, 'The 
Pleasant House," he taught the seven liberal arts. 
Erasmus was not unmindful of the formation of habit 
by repetition; of more general "procedure" through 
the mastery of small portions of work. All such de- 
tails were not beneath his careful consideration. 



REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

The secondary German gymmasien, and the lower 
Jesuit colleges may very well have given field for the 
formation of habits of study. Nevertheless, there was 
as yet no direct psychological analysis of the mental 
processes underlying secondary education. 



MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC EDUCATION, 

MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne's insistence on getting at the "things and 
objects," and making use of childhood's imitativeness 
to learn languages practically, unites secondary with 
primary education, sending the child into tertiary or 
finishing education at the time he would usually be^in 



24 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

the secondary. This indeed occurred with Montaigne 
himself, who entered college at thirteen years of age. 
Under the heading of habit, we may perhaps men- 
tion Montaigne's great aversion for mere memoriza- 
tion. "A boy should not so much memorize his lesson, 
as practice it. Let him repeat it in his actions."^ 
'To know by heart only is not to know at all; it is 
simply to keep what one has committed to his mem- 
ory. What a man knows directly, that he will dispose 
of without turning to his book, or looking to his 
pattern." This then is here considered the measure 
and basis of efficiency. 

MULCASTER. 

Mulcaster's^^ second psychological step of "memory 
to retain" represents fairly well the habit-formation of 
secondary education. 

COMENIUS. 

Comenius's analysis of the psychological basis of 
the second stage of education is ''ruling one's self" — 
evidently the creation of habits. 

LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

Nobody more than Locke has emphasized the value 
of habit. To him it was the one means by which the 
impressionable sensitive plate of the mind developed 
"powers" and "faculties." "It is not that the perform- 
ance of a single act is in itself to be deprecated per- 
haps; but the formation of habit is all-important." 
"Habits work more constantly and with greater facility 
than reason, which, when we have most need of it, 
is seldom fairly consulted, and more rarely obeyed. "^^ 
Practice and habits are everything. We are born with 
faculties, but the$e are not exercise. Genius is no 



HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 25 

more than exercise; many a poetic nature lies hid in 
avocations of trade. The difference between men is 
not due to their natural faculties, but to their acquired 
habits. Hearing and memorizing of rules are worth- 
less: it is practice that forms the habit of action with- 
out reflection. Faults arise chiefy from want of right 
use of mind.^2 



ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

Between the ages of fifteen to twenty the selfish 
child begins to become aware of others; his heart is 
to be trained in social relationships.^^ Adolescence 
here "begins" education, instead of ending It: a com- 
mon sense interpretation is that Emile's education is 
belated. What before was mere habitual association 
now becomes based on unity, on sympathy and on 
emotional experience; through contact with men, the 
example of his tutor, and the study of history, his 
conscience is wakened by love and hate that point out 
good and evil. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 

PESTALOZZI. 

Pestalozzi^^ emphasizes the value of the repetitional 
habit in the memorizing of verses and the continuous 
repetition of lessons. 

FROEBEL. 

While Froebel limited himself to the kindergarten, 
hence not touching the secondary school, he fully 
recognized the crucial importance of its underlying" 
principle of habit formation. 



26 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 
HERBART. 

Herbart suggested as means of the psychological de- 
velopment the use of pure mathematics, classical 
languages, literature and history. These of course 
drill the mind by habits of study. 

MONTESSORL 

The Montessori method does not primarily apply to 
secondary education, as it does not concern itself as 
much with the formation of habits as with the employ- 
ment of imitation, the basis of primary education. It 
is expected that if each step is the result of pleasur- 
able activity, there will be no need of habit. So 
corsets, braces, and orthopedic benches^^ are dis- 
carded in favor of change of form of work; avoiding 
mechanism, in favor of a conquest of liberty. How- 
ever, the senses are educated by repeated exercise to 
produce refinement of discrimination.^*^ It is called 
"sensory culture." The teacher at least must practice 
long and patient observation. ^'^ 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 

The German secondary school system was estab- 
lished in its present position after the Napoleonic wars 
as an engine of national regeneration and revenge, 
under the leadership of such men as Schelling. It has 
fulfilled its mission, as the Franco-Prussian war demon- 
strated. Lately it has undergone a number of modi- 
fications by adding to the old classical course the 
Latin-scientific real gymmasium, the commercial 
realschule, and girls' gymnasium. It fits for the one 
year volunteer service in the army and the university. 
Its severe drill is an admirable means for formation of 
habits of study and self-discipline; but hardly of self- 



HABIT, OR SECONDARY EDUCATION 27 

control, for which the implicit obedience demanded 
precludes the student. 

FRENCH EDUCATION. 

In France the secondary school system is elaborately 
systematized, and forms the foundation for admission 
to the professions and government employ, extending 
from the tenth to the seventeenth year. Its close 
articulation with the almost innumerable government 
positions, with its postal, telegraphic and railroad sys- 
tems, lends it much of the Greek semi-political char- 
acter. Ramus's precept, "Few precepts and much 
practice," suggests the proper basis of French second- 
ary education. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

The secondary school system of the United States is 
not yet unified, or everywhere developed; but the 
immense strides of secondary school attendance shows 
that its'facilities are being more and more appreciated 
all over our country. One state alone yet insists on 
the standard that every child shall at any rate go 
through the high school — Massachusetts; but this 
standard has set the pace for the whole country, and 
the whole world, for the matter of that. 



1 Painter, 20. 2 McEvoy, 16. 12 Conduct of Understanding; 

3 Monroe, 90. 4 Monroe, 92. 4. ^3, Monroe, S63-5. 14 Leon- 

E Monroe, 93. 6 Monroe, 99. ard and Gertrude, 25. is Mon- 

■^ Monroe, 152. ^ Monroe, tessori, 19. i^Montessori, 173. 

154. 9 Monroe, 461. lo Mon- 17 Montessori, 11. 
roe, 466. n Monroe, 516. 



28 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



CHAPTER III. 
Spedallzation, the Basis of Tertiary Education. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

Absence of the second or habit-step of education, 
limiting man to mere imitation, might be called 
savagery. Man then becomes primitive by passing 
through an initiation of some sort into a customary or 
habitual condition. Civilization may be said to be 
reached when arises effort, inventiveness, specializa- 
tion, expertness, will — the third, combining or "finish- 
ing" process of an education. 

It may indeed not appear self-consciously in prim- 
itive times, yet it must ever have been present, how- 
ever implicitly, in any distinctively human activity. 

It will be noticed that the first development of 
primitive education. Oriental education, is character- 
ized by entire repression of the individuality; primitive 
education must therefore have been a socializing edu- 
cation of the impulses before individuality even ap- 
peared on the scene. Moreover, the character and 
content of the training was directed to producing a 
useful member of the tribe, rather than an international 
personality; the learning was tribal, and taught with 
tribal formalities. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

If China is the best possible example of the applica- 
tion of the principle of secondary education, habit, we 



SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 29 

must not be misled into supposing that the principle of 
tertiary education — individuality, would be entirely 
absent. Man is incurably human; and, even at his first 
appearance, showed some trace, however slight, of 
all his powers. We saw that even in primitive educa- 
tion, the medicine men must have used some little 
individuality; and the Chinese also certainly used a 
great deal more of it: the adoption of so morally 
exalted a standard as Confucius originated; the inven- 
tions of so complicated a hieroglyphic system; print- 
ing; spectacles; and many other inventions antedating 
our own by milleniums. Chinese education, therefore, 
is civilization, though stunted. 

Again, recently, in 1 898, there were great changes. 
The examinations were temporarily abolished, and 
western colleges substituted. In 1901 literary style 
essays were abolished, and modern training introduced. 
No doubt these changes will bear fruit, and demonstrate 
that further improvements will not be impossible. So 
also the introduction and abolishment of the queue. 

The examination system was established in 61 7 A.D., 
under the T'ang dynasty, so that there were changes 
even then. Only these changes were looked on as 
"natural" or personal actions, and were not realized as 
conflicting with custom. 

Besides, the composition of odes and essays, though 
cast in inflexible form of imitative couplet-writing, does 
imply creative ability, and "finishing" activity. But 
this may be exercised only within the limits of couplet 
or essay-style. Evidently individuality has not yet en- 
tirely emerged in literary, as well as in moral relations. 

This rudimentary abortion of individuality has left 
the whole nation materialistic and sordid; nothing to 
inspire the individual, no "breath of idealism"; even 
the rare principles of ethical character are based 
wholly on arbitrary authority or irrational tradition.^ 
It has resulted^ in a lack of power of initiative, of in- 



30 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

ventiveness, of adaptability, and all creative function- 
ing. 

The most striking indication of this is the Hindu 
formulation of it in the doctrine that the goal of per- 
sonal development is absorption in Nirvana, the an- 
nihilation of the individual. 

Let it not be thought that this absence of individu- 
ality was due to any psychological defect: the human 
being was born, the same as he is now, ages ago; and 
the proof of it is, among the Chinese, that this social 
choking of it resulted in the unreliability of slave- 
morality; one cannot violate a man's nature, without 
suffering compensations that are sinister. 

In India, only Brahmin pupils continue on to tertiary 
education,^ and thus complete since their primary days 
twelve years of study. Indeed, through this long 
course the Hindus achieved very great proficiency in 
mathematics, originating much of algebra, thus placing 
the rest of mankind under lasting obligation.^ Rhe- 
toric and logic also were cultivated.^ 

In Persia, the tertiary period from twenty-five to 
fifty years of age consisted of military service as a 
soldier, but added reading and writing. Competent 
retired soldiers, after fifty years of age, may have 
become Magi, who practised astronomy, astrology, 
alchemy, priestcraft, and the study of the Zend-Avesta. 

In Egypt the highest education in sciences and philo- 
sophy was of course limited to the priests, whose 
reputation was such that Plato was drawn to them, and 
from them received much — as, for instance, his legend 
of Atlantis. 

Among the Hebrews (of the first century A.D), 
there were rabbinical schools of theology, law and 
medicine at Alexandria, Babylon and Jerusalem. In 
earlier periods, the "schools of the prophets" for sons 
of prophets, priests, and other leaders, taught philos- 
ophy, poetry, music, medicine, history and law.^ 



SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 31 

The Saracens preserved and transmitted the philos- 
ophy of Aristotle, and at their university seats of 
Bagdad, Cairo, Cordova and Seville, translated the 
works of Euclid, remodeled the algebra of the Greeks 
and Hindus into modern form; founded a new trigo- 
nometry, and gave a new numerical notation; dis- 
covered alcohol, nitric and sulphuric acids; applied 
the pendulum to time, measured the earth, and made 
a star catalogue, added much to knowledge of medi- 
cine, surgery, pharmacy, astronomy, physiology and 
physics, besides improving navigation and commerce; 
and introducing the use of rice, sugar, cotton, and 
the cultivation of silk. 

GREEK EDUCATION. 

Aristotle taught that only when good habits had 
been formed'^ and a good nature had been discovered, 
this work of instruction could be completed by the 
work of instruction in theory. Hence ethics culmin- 
ated in politics, its practical application, its chief ob- 
ject being^ to produce in the citizens a certain char- 
acter, enabling them to do great deeds. 

The human being, consisting of three parts, body 
and soul, irrational and rational, needs an education 
consisting first, of gymnastics; then education of the 
desires, passions and appetites — music, and literature, 
or the moral education; and the education of the 
rational part of the soul implied science and philos- 
ophy — the life of reason, the crown — which was the 
element lacking to Spartan education. Spartans sub- 
stituted for this actual experience in war from twenty 
to thirty years of age, when occurred marriage, as- 
suming of citizenship, and performing actual public 
service. 

In Athens the tertiary education was the ephebic 
period, when, as a citizen enrolled under oath (from 



32 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

eighteen to twenty years of age), the youth lived in 
barracks or camp one year, and became a regular 
soldier the second. Athenian education was therefore 
developed one step further than the Spartan by the 
presence of a genuine secondary education of social 
culture. Lacking this, the Spartan's finishing educa- 
tion became the secondary education in point of time. 
Besides, this military education of Spartan and Athen- 
ian showed different results. Among the Spartans, 
what was committed to the direction of habit, and 
therefore grew permanent, was war. Even in a great 
national urgency they would not go to Marathon, be- 
cause of their habit of waiting for the new moon; and 
to the very end of their existence they remained war- 
like. Not so with the Athenian. Habitually, incurably 
cultured, his warlikeness was never more than fitful; 
the walls of the Parthenon were built at an exigency 
out of ill-assorted material; their generals were not 
professionals, but elected civilians. 

Of the Spartans, Plutarch said, "As for learning, 
they had just what was absolutely necessary." Ac- 
cording to Lycurgus, their chief object was "exercise 
of virtue," and "concord of the inhabitants."^ Hence 
their education was prevailingly physical and moral. It 
was the Sophists who first attempted to impart definite 
information, so that the so-called reforms of Socrates 
and Plato were really in the nature of a retrogression; 
they cared but little for dissemination of informa- 
tion.^^ Their method was inadequate for mathe- 
matics, science, history, language, or literature. 

ROMAN EDUCATION. 

Upon their education of habit, the Romans, in later 
years, superimposed rationalizing instructions of formal 
kind; but this ever remained a Greek importation. 
Their tertiary or finishing course was the actual ap- 



SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 33 

prenticeship to the thing to be done. They manifested 
no appreciation whatever of the training and instruc- 
tion in certain selected activities that possess cultural 
value because they plant in the very nature of the 
child germs of a much fuller development in manhood 
— activities such as characterized the liberal education 
of the Greeks. 

The "school of the rhetor" was a "finishing" course, 
patronized only by those who were preparing for 
public life — especially for oratory. It consisted chiefly 
of declamation and debate about legal and moral de- 
batable questions; it also taught music, arithmetic, 
geometry, astronomy and philosophy. In time these 
finishing schools culminated into a Roman university, 
begun by a library founded by Vespasian (69-79 A.D) 
in the Temple of Peace, and which under Hadrian 
(117-138) came to be called the "Athenaeum." How- 
ever, it attended more to law and medicine than to 
philosophy. 

That the Roman's physical prowess remained so 
permanent shows that their secondary period of habit- 
formation was taken up with warlike training. Here 
was the difference between Sparta, Athens and Rome. 
Sparta, with warlikeness as secondary training, and 
no tertiary education, had a warlike people, but no 
good generals. In Athens, postponement of warlikeness 
to the tertiary stage produced a few brilliant generals 
over an unwarlike people. Rome, with warlike 
secondary education, gave her whole people warlike 
stability; but the addition of an intelligent tertiary edu- 
cation of culture added brilliant generals. 

While these schools all began in a private manner, 
they soon spread over the whole empire; but there was 
no governmental oversight, compulsion, or uniformity. 
Gradually, however, the government, both imperial 
and municipal, came to the aid of these schools, and 
thereby gave them a certain official standing, and the 



34 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

semblance of a system. The paying of the salaries by 
Vespasian developed the University of Rome; and 
Antoninus Pius (138-161 A.D.) first admitted the 
grammarians, rhetoricians and philosophers to quasi- 
senatorial rank and privileges. 

MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

The Christian finishing or university education was 
in the earliest period the cathechetical school, ^^ so 
called from the use of the cathechism, and its method 
of instruction. For some centuries Alexandria was 
the centre of this theological intellectual activity, be- 
ginning with the Stoic convert Pantaenus in 179 A.D., 
with Clement and Origen (231 A.D.), who continued 
such instruction in Syria and Cesarea, followed by 
Jerome at Bethlehem. Calixtus founded such a school 
at Rome which, through libraries, assumed university 
proportions. 

The germ of specialization appeared in the Cis- 
tercian monasteries, through the admission of lay- 
brothers devoted to the rough work. This allowed 
the more intellectual monks more time for study and 
literature. 

Tertiary or finishing education was represented in 
chivalry by the last stage of the training of the squire; 
the "squire of the body." He was the immediate per- 
sonal attendant upon his lord in battle and in tourna- 
ment, and thus had the opportunities, as well as right, 
of promotion to knighthood. 

A later form of finishing education occurred when, 
in its last organized readjustment in the thirteenth 
century, against the Pre-Renaissance, the Roman 
Church developed a tertiary extension in the form of 
the Inquisition, a sort of graduation in conversion, 
which was effectually prepared for life or death, as 
the case might be; at any rate, it well showed the 
power of will-directed, rationally efficient methods. 



SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 35 

In another direction, tertiary interests developed — 
at Paris, under William of Champeaux, and Abelard, 
in 1121. The local cathedral and monastery schools 
merged into an university, because of the numbers of 
students who flocked there, and the prominence of 
these (it is said twenty cardinals and fifty bishops rose 
from among them). The different universities grew 
up from special schools — theology at Paris, law at 
Bologna, medicine at Salerno. Later, these developed 
full symmetric curricula. As Abelard created Paris, 
so Irnerius, and the discovery of the Pandect of Jus- 
tinian at the sack of Amalfi in 1135, created Bologna. 
Especially the importation of Arabic by returning 
crusaders, and the recovery of the true Aristotle made 
readjustment of tertiary education inevitable. 

At the universities, as with the trade guilds, the third 
period of education, the executive, was entered by an 
examination, a ''master-piece," a "disputation," a 
"thesis," which, if sustained, was rewarded with the 
license to teach or "incept," to engage in active oc- 
cupation — so that this constituted a finishing educa- 
tion. 

RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

Vittorino da Feltre, in his Mantuan School, "The 
Pleasant House," added to the seven liberal arts such 
finishing courses as to prepare directly for a useful and 
balanced life in leadership, a citizenship based on a 
knowledge of, and sympathy with, the best in the life 
of the Greeks and Romans. 



REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

Luther was very bitter against the traditional pagan 
humanistic university course, considering it a lingering 
form of the Greek ephebic organization. Indeed, the 



36 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Reformation caused the chief universities, such as 
Wittemberg, Marburg, Koenigsberg, Jena, Helmstadt, 
Dorpat, Strasburg, and Altdorf, to secede from the 
papacy, and to devote themselves to the interest of 
whatever reigning house supported them. The Roman 
Cathohcs meanwhile founded new universities within 
the Teuton sphere. The Jesuit universities presented a 
high degree of efficiency; but gradually all of them 
sank into lifeless formalism. 



MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne points out how specialized Greek edu- 
cation was, inasmuch as the Greeks went to Sparta for 
legislators, magistrates and generals; to Athens for 
speakers, and elsewhere for rhetoricians, painters and 
musicians. So his own educational scheme for a gen- 
tleman's education seems admirably fitted for his pur- 
pose. There was more time for this, because of starting 
to college at so early an age; and it included travel and 
association with princes. 

MULCASTER. 

Mulcaster's threefold psychological scheme of "Dis- 
cretion to discern by,^- may represent that specializing 
expertness required in a finishing course. 

COMENIUS. 

Comenius's psychological analysis of the third stage 
of education is "directing oneself towards God"; i.e., in 
lay language, specialization and effectiveness, 

LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

Locke holds "that when good habits have done their 
work, then may instruction or learning"^^ come in 



SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 37 

second place, as subservient, casually in the bargain, 
a very easy rate, by methods that may be thought on. 
Even in regard to "finishing," Locke never loses sight 
of his principle of character; he prefers mathematics 
"not so much as to make them mathematicians, as to 
make them reasonable creatures." The "finishing" 
accomplishments of dancing, drawing, music, fencing, 
riding, travel and painting^^ are taken up only late. 
However, we must remember Locke was stretching the 
education not of a scholar, or tradesman, or profes- 
sional, but of a "gentleman." 

ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

The more advanced tertiary or university education 
is ignored in Emile's education. It does not come 
within Rousseau's vision, perhaps for the reason he 
himself did not possess it. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
FROEBEL. 

Froebel, of course, never definitely attacked the 
problem of tertiary or finishing education, although we 
may imagine that he would have applied to it his 
"perfect social balance." 

MONTESSORI. 
Montessori improved on Froebel's general training 
of the senses^^ by reducing it to scientific methods, 
applying Seguin's apparatus for their formal gymnastic, 
and for sensory discrimination, training each sense 
separately and repeatedly, and developing power of 
comparison. Each sense has its own methods: tactile, 
thermic stereognostic senses, taste, smell and vision, 
hearing and music. Beyond the senses we come to 
ideas, intellectual education, which is promoted by 



38 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

games. The steps are association, test, motor activity 
and generalization.^^ Then we have observation, 
analysis and voluntary effort,^''' by which knowledge 
becomes the magic key of nature. ^^ Children, how- 
ever, are not alike, but show profound individual dif- 
ferences, so that they call for very different kinds of 
help from the teacher, ^'-^ and uniform class-work is 
practically impossible. ^*^ Montessori is thus applying 
the specialization of secondary education in the primary 
field. She criticizes usual schools as repressing spon- 
taneous expression of personality till children are 
almost like dead beings. 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 

The German tertiary school, the university, presents 
a strange contrast to the secondary school. If here 
habits of study and discipline were enforced, there is 
practiced the utmost license, through which is de- 
veloped, in those who survive it, individuality and 
self-reliance. The intellectual liberty of teaching, the 
"Lehrfreiheit," is often misunderstood and misapplied. 
Nevertheless, the getting of the degree, or preparation 
for the professional state-examination soon recall the 
erring prodigal to a sense of his responsibility, and he 
begins to work for himself. 

FRENCH EDUCATION. 

Nowhere has specialization made more strides than 
in France. On the lycee's baccalaureate, which is 
perhaps lower than the American college's degree, is 
built the free university examination-system, open to 
everybody who cares to try the tests — which, indeed, 
are often taken repeatedly until old age, the pupil 
starting his career earlier than in America; but his 
choice of any other profession is more and more im- 



SPECIALIZATION, OR TERTIARY EDUCATION 39 

possible as he advances to expertness, which is invited 
by many lucrative and permanent positions. Except 
in the normal schools, and some other professional 
schools such as the Polytechnic, St. Cyr or Brest, there 
is less "college life," such as is seen at the Oxford 
"colleges," but, at the same time, the liberty is greater. 
At any rate, expertness is more and more emphasized, 
rewarded, and achieved. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

Tertiary education, or individualization, is, l3y the 
United States Commission of Education, considered 
the goal of the education of every American child; 
and this has been effected in a wonderful way in Cin- 
cinnati, where the university has so affiliated with the 
factories as to allow of self-support by students, and 
of study by laborers. 

The principle of individualism has perhaps even 
been carried too far; not only is it practised in the 
secondary school, where the entering pupils choose 
between courses; but even in the upper years of the 
elementary school. A N. E. A. Committee of Fifteen, 
however, suggests that this specialization be not begun 
earlier than the second half of the high school course, 
the first half of which should give so wide a review 
that the momentous choice of specialization may be 
made as intelligently as possible. 

1 Monroe, 22. 2 Monroe, 42. 518, 519. 14 Theory of Educa- 

s Painter 1, Compayre. ^ Pain- tion, 196-203. ^^ Montessori, 

ter. 5 Compayre, 6. 6 Mc- xxi. ^^Ih., 225. i"^ lb., 236. 

Evoy, 22. 7 Monroe, 152. « lb., is lb., 239. 19 lb., 231. 20 ib., 

154. 9 lb., 75. 10 lb., 10. 14. xxi. 
11 lb., 233. 12 lb., 466. is lb,. 



40 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



CHAPTER IV. 

Interest. 

Interest has been defined as the recognition of some- 
thing old in the new, and of something new in the old. 
It is therefore the joy of analysis, association, and 
progress that is interesting. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

The individual's interest exists in the earlier tribe- 
member's desires to survive with his fellows. Until 
the self-conscious individuality is born, it is vain to 
speak of interest as an educational method; an animal 
can be baited, a child can be coaxed, but only a human 
self-consciousness can be interested. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

Interest, of course, where individuality is not fully 
born, can exist only to the extent to which no human 
being can do anything well and thoroughly, without 
taking an interest in it. As here discipline is so 
ferocious, it is immaterial whether the individual takes 
or loses interest. Indeed, the classics recognize these 
duties will be irksome,^ for after an interminable list 
of family duties are added the words, "All this do 
with the appearance of pleasure." Interest, therefore, 
is absent as a motive among the Chinese.^ 



INTEREST 41 

In India also interest is lacking, the training demand- 
ing mild discipline. 

Persia was the first country (if we may accept 
Xenophon's Cyropedia as history), where interest was 
developed positively. While other states enforced 
prohibitions by punishment, the Persian laws^ "take 
the initiative, and exercise a care that the citizens, from 
the beginning on have no inclination to a wicked or 
shameful deed." 

Plato relates that even the Egyptians, in teaching 
mathematics (numbers), used games, so as to arouse 
the interest of the pupil.'* 

The element of interest, among the Hebrews, seems 
to have been represented by music and the Psalms, 
which gave expression to the loftiest religious senti- 
ments. 

Scientific interest, however, first appeared among 
the Saracens, although the droning of the Koran still 
continued unhindered. 

On the whole, then, among the Oriental systems 
of education, interest was enforced only as a side issue, 
the individual being ever subordinated to methods, 
purposes and interest of the state itself. 



GREEK EDUCATION. 

The doctrine of interest was not entirely unknown 
among the Greeks. Plato distinctly affirmed that 
learning should be made pleasant, in order that it 
might be of profit. "Education^ is a very skillful 
discipline which, by way of amusement, leads the mind 
of the child to solve that which is to make it finished." 
"A free mind ought to learn nothing as a slave. The 
lesson that is made to enter the mind by force, will not 
remain there. Then use no violence towards the 
children, the rather cause them to learn while playing." 



42 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

The Spartans also^ gave children warlike toys to 
attract them to weapons, by interest. 



ROMAN EDUCATION. 

The doctrine of interest was not unknown even 
among the Romans, for Quintilian argues for the ab- 
rogation of the discipline of force in favor of making 
the school pleasant and attractive. Cicero said that 
play should be refining and educative. 



MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

The principle of interest was well recognized in 
Jerome's letters to Eustochium about the education of 
Paula: "Put into the hands of Paula letters in wood or 
in ivory, and teach her the names of them. She will 
thus learn while playing."^ 

Nor was the discipline of emulation and bribing un- 
known. Jerome, writing about the education of Paula 
said: "Induce her to construct words by offering her a 
prize, or by giving her as a reward, what ordinarily 
pleases children of her age. Let her have companions, 
so that the commendations she may receive may 
excite in her the feeling of emulation. Do not chide 
her for the difficulty she may have in learning. On 
the contrary, encourage her by commendation, and 
proceed in such a way that she will be equally sensible 
to the pleasure of having done well, and to the pain 
of not having been successful. . . . Especially take 
care that she do not conceive a dislike for study that 
might follow her into a more advanced age." 

There was a great revival of learning under Charle- 
magne (A.D. 771-814), with the assistance of 
Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, and Joannes Scotus Erigena. 
This indeed was due to the initiative and political in- 



INTEREST 43 

terests of the king; but he found willing help from 
the more intelligent churchmen. 

Next to the treatment of a human faculty when 
recognized, is that of one unrecognized, though per- 
haps just as active. So we have unconscious interest 
creating the university — drawing men to Irnerius 
at Bologna, and Abelard at Paris. Of course, interest 
drew the flower of chivalry to its destruction in Pales- 
tine, and interest in truth was finally triumphant over 
the "white" and "black" "dogs" of Dominicans and 
Franciscans, and the Inquisition. 

RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

The doctrine of interest is practically foreshadowed 
in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of the beauties 
of Ciceronian literature. So Petrarch'^ is the first 
"modern man," breaking loose from the mediaeval 
curricula, and attempting to reproduce the beauties of 
Ciceronianism in living letters. So, for instance, 
games are to be indulged in'-^: "Such relations should 
form an integral part of each day's occupation, if 
learning is not to be made an object of disgust." 

Vittorino de Feltre, the first modern schoolmaster, 
called his school at Mantua "The Pleasant House." 
He made the life of his pupils as pleasant and as active 
as possible; sports and games were joined with study, 
and aesthetic appreciation was cultivated. 

Wimpfeling, in his "Guide to German Youth," 
wished all "study to be for the quickening of inde- 
pendent thought." Asham, too, taught the "cheerful" 
expounding of the lesson, and the quickening value 
of praise. 

REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

The doctrine of interest is strongly taught by the 
Reformers. Luther himself had suffered enough per- 



44 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

sonally at the hands of teachers and monks for him 
to desire a cheerfuller method of instruction. The 
children, says he, are not to be repressed, but to be 
encouraged, to enjoy their worlc, especially the sing- 
ing, which formed so large a part in Luther's curri- 
culum of the "continuation schools." 

The Jesuit system had made scientific use of interest 
as bait to the most rigorous discipline ever known in 
the world, and thus had been enabled to dispense with 
corporal punishment. Evidently in this case, interest 
was not an independent end, but a means. When the 
Jansenists attempted to make interest the end, they 
failed, and were compelled to reintroduce corporal 
punishment. Evidently this is a demonstration of the 
inefficiency of interest alone as an end. 

MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne was no practical educator, which perhaps 
accounts for his innovation in the matter of discipline. 
Studies^*' were to be made pleasant; games and sports 
were to be used for this purpose as well as for their 
usefulness in the physical development of the child, 
and for their practical bearing on his duties later in 
life; attractive, rather than compulsory means were 
favored. 

Curiosity should be employed by visits to places 
where one may study history; also by biography, and 
conversation with men. For the world is a mirror in 
which we see ourselves.^^ The most magnificent sign 
of wisdom is a continual cheerfulness.^^ We should 
make learning attractive, and help the pupil digest the 
new lesson that the height and value of true virtue 
consists in the facility, utility, and pleasure of its ex- 
ercise.i3 xhe strict government of a college is dis- 



INTEREST 45 

pleasing — a house of correction of imprisoned youtli. 
This is no way to produce love. Paint a school with 
joy and gladness; where there is profit, there is 
pleasure too.^^ 

Montaigne believed in the absorption of foreign 
languages by children in the nursery, and by mimetic 
reproduction. Thus^^ the theatres should become 
public benefactors, making learning alluring; not 
making asses laden with books, and driven with the 
lash; so that learning will not merely lodge with the 
children, but that they shall espouse it. 

Montaigne no doubt owed this emphasis on alluring 
interest to Rabelais.^^ 

MILTON. 

Milton too, in his Tractate, wished children to be 
attracted to learning, and not to be mortified by un- 
necessary discipline. 

MULCASTER. 

Mulcaster was as strong as any of the Realists in 
his demand that education should be made pleasurable 
to the child.i^ 



LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

Closely connected with self-activity is, of course, 
interest. So Locke^*^ would not have any lessons that 
are tasks; only such should be given as are liked. 
Locke insists that it is a matter of common knowledge 
that human beings have seasons of aptitude and in- 
clination, when the minds are in tune and well-dis- 
posed; lessons should be done only when the mind is 
apt. 

Reading,^^ for instance, is not to be made a task, 
but a privilege. Learning should become a sport; 



46 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

children should have nothing like work, or serious 
matters laid on them. The pupil should have play- 
things apt to teach him^O; he should be "played into" 
spelling20; \jy letters pasted on dice^^j he should be 
cheated into learning, which is not a business^^; indeed, 
children are to teach each other.^^ Fables, pictures 
are to be used^^; religious matters should only be 
read to him.^^ 

This principle of interest is to continue all the way 
until he exchanges his tutor for his mistress, a girl,^^ 
who by his love's interest thus becomes his future life- 
long teacher. 

ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

The doctrine of interest is bound up with that of 
self-activity. Emile must form no habits, nor do any- 
thing in which he takes no pleasure. Hence the whole 
of his education is in reality a drifting on the tides of 
curiosity and interest. 

The limitations of this view need not be pointed 
ont; it is evident that one cannot, except from chance 
or fancy, take an interest in anything one may not 
understand; hence there could be but little progress, as 
indeed was the case with Emile. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
FROEBEL. 

The doctrine of interest is made use of by Froebel in 
organizing intellectually, socially and morally the in- 
evitable play of childhood. Monroe, however,^'^ points 
out that "through a misinterpretation of, and an over- 
emphasis upon this doctrine of interest, much that is 
detrimental has crept into many a modern school. 
There has grown a tendency to interpret the idea that 



INTEREST 47 

play is educative into the pernicious fallacy that edu- 
cation is play. Thus again is revealed the tendency 
previously noted, to exalt a means intended as a start- 
ing-point into an end in itself." 

HERBART. 

Instruction, according to Herbart, is made educa- 
tive by many sided interest; which is the purpose 
medial to virtue. Interest, many sided, is the kind of 
mental activity which it is the business of instruction to 
incite, so that the pupil will reach out for more in- 
formation^S; it is a mental activity or condition accom- 
panying the process of appreciation of an idea." 

Interest must encourage ideas, on which depend 
volitions; and to affect character, they must be abiding. 
The teacher is to increase the quantity of interests 
without changing the outlines, proportion or form of 
this many sidedness, blending with it individuality, 
which is unconscious, character being conscious. 

To produce this "many sidedness of interest" the 
teacher must: 1, select proper materials, furnishing 
proper presentations both of experience and inter- 
course, and 2, use the method of instruction proper to 
arranging these presentations in an order harmonious 
with the psychological development of the child. 

MONTESSORI. 

Interest is of course the bait of self-activity. The 
child is to do about as he pleases, so long as he does not 
do any harm.^^ Exercises done not for sake of reward, 
but for their own sake have a peculiar simple but ab- 
sorbing interest. 2** Interest is aroused by the work 
being done not so much for the mechanism, but by 
the spirit thereof. This interest must first be in the 
teacher, not only for natural phenomena, but for the 
human equation. ^^ He must show a mixture of respect 



48 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

and love, of sacred curiosity, and of a desire to achieve 
this spiritual greatness, and be inspired by self-sacri- 
fice.32 The joy of creation is the real spur of prog- 
ress.33 This again is chiefly applied to the teacher. 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 

The remarkaby high rate of suicide among German 
school-boys shows how little interest is employed edu- 
catively in the land of Herbart. Nevertheless, those 
that survive this discipline and become intelligent 
enough to desire social survival, develop a very real 
interest of thoroughness in their work, and manifest 
results two and three years ahead of those of Ameri- 
can school-boys to whose chance interest progress is 
often abandoned. The legal and social compulsion of 
the German system thus uses the interest of self- 
defense and survival as a lever so strong as to render 
police compulsion unnecessary; but it would seem that 
this was an unnatural use of human interest; it is a 
violation of personality, a degrading humiliation. 

FRENCH EDUCATION, 

Interest is, edivently, the chief lever of a discipline, 
such as the Jesuit and French, which depends on 
emulation and rewards or demerits. Compared gen- 
erally with the stimulation of physical punishment, it 
would seem evident that there was hardly any hesita- 
tion about the superiority of interest. Indeed, until 
interest is so employed, it can lead to little but dis- 
tracting amusements, personalities, or lack of thorough- 
ness in work. It can however be employed by making 
use of natural curiosity to draw out instructive answers 
from the teacher. Moreover, Fenelon would make use 
of it by the imitative primary methods of history and 
fables. 



INTEREST 49 

So also the Jansenists tried to attain whatever dis- 
ciphne of moral training they needed through inter- 
esting literature rather than through dry grammar; 
likewise, they did not wish the disciplinary sanction to 
be the Jesuit emulation, but the love of the pupil, 
aroused by the affection and religious zeal of the 
teacher. But the results were often indifferent. 

Jacotot based his paradox that all can teach on the 
fact that all can arouse self-activity, after which in- 
terest will insure completion of the process. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

In the earliest American schools emulation was 
freely employed to secure advancement.^^ Indeed, 
the irrepressible self-activity of the American child 
needs the skilful guidance of interest to be kept in 
paths of self-improvement. It is indeed the only hold 
in a land where no other disciplinary sanction is pos- 
sible or allowed. 



1 Monroe, 44. 2 McEvoy, 6. 19 lb., 148. 20 ib., 151. 21 ib., 

3 Painter, 23. 4 Compayre. 153. 22 Jb., 155. 23 lb., 152. 

5 Compayre, 33. 6 McEvoy, 30. 24 Jb., 156. 25 Jb., 157. 26 Jb., 

■7 Compayre, 67. § Monroe, 358. 216. 27 Monroe, 662. 28 Mon- 

9 Monroe, 368. 10 Monroe, 457. roe, 633. 29 Montessori, xxi. 

11 Montaigne, Education, 187. so jb., xxxix, p. 42. 3i jb., 9. 

12 lb., 192. 13 lb., 193. 14 lb., 32 lb., 13. 33ib„24. 43 Brown. 
199. 15 lb., 214. 16 McEvoy, Making of our Middle Schools, 
136. 17 Monroe, 467. is The- 139. 

ory of Education, 72, 73. 



50 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



CHAPTER V. 
Self-Activity. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

While the member of the prehistoric tribe was 
allowed no self-activity, it is evident that its germ 
must have awakened in the teacher, as we may call 
him, either by seeing others do things well, or by his 
own fancy. The member of the tribe ceased being a 
savage, and became a primitive man on initiation into 
a custom; when he entered the third step of will, effort, 
combination, originality or self-activity, then he entered 
into the sphere of civilization. We might, in this 
sense, therefore say that not until Froebel's day had a 
pedagogy of civilization been fully developed. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

In Asia, Primitive education changed into Oriental 
education with the arising of nationalities. Oriental 
education was little more than a recapitulation of the 
past, for the purpose of preserving custom unchanged. 
Hence its general characteristics were: 

1, Suppression of individuality; 2, control of ex- 
ternal authority in the practical and thought-life; 3, the 
static character of society, and educational ideals; 
4, the dominance of a priest-craft, or of religion, over 
education; 5, the importance of linguistics and of re- 
ligious literature. 



SELF-ACTIVITY 5l 

A. The essential features of the Chinese system, 
for instance, are: 

1, A conception of education as a recapitulation of 
the past through the dominance of a religious and 
ethical literature whose authority is exercised by the 
ruling learned class; 2, the dominance of influences 
which have prevented progress; 3, the close relation- 
ship between social life and education; 4, the religious 
and ethical basis of education as found in Confucian- 
ism; 5, The duration of the system for 2,000 years 
with but few essential changes, and its extent over vast 
territory and population; 6, a content of linguistic and 
religious material, its highly developed organization 
of a hierarchical system of examinations, and its 
method of servile imitation. 

Its results were: 1, Social stability, without progress; 
2, the disparagement of important social interests, and 
the entire elimination of intellectual interests, except 
the literary; 3, the perpetuation of formalism in life; 
4, on the part of the individual, the development of 
great intellectual abilities of certain restricted type, 
but with slight power of initiative. 

Self-activity, responsibility of the individual, in- 
dividuality, is therefore not yet distinct in China: the 
son is punished for the father's misdeeds, whole families 
are exterminated for crimes of any of its members. 

B. The essentials of Hindu education are: 1, the 
dominance of a caste system of society and of educa- 
tion based upon religion, with a prominent philosophi- 
cal element, and a literature of great merit; 2, an 
educational system that is adapted to each caste, but 
affords literary and formal education only to the upper 
and priestly caste; 3, the perpetuation of formalism" 
in life; 4, on the part of the individual the develop- 
ment of great intellectual abilities of a certain restricted 
type, but with slight power of initiative. 

So in India, the highest religious aspiration is to be 



52 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

absorbed into the great unconscious world-spirit; their 
de-individualizing heaven is called Nirvana. 

C. Turning to the essential features of the ancient 
Hebrew education: 1, the formal education of the 
people through the ceremonial law, constituting a large 
part of their religious literature; 2, hence, the same 
subjection of the individual to external authority; 
3, the provision for individuality through the emphasis 
on moral personality in this religious literature was 
expressed by the "prophets," and became prominent 
only with the decline of nationality; 4, the very tardy 
development of any formal literary education for any 
except the priesthood; no system of schools developed 
until near the opening of the Christian era; 5, the 
practical education of the child through the family, 
and his moral education through the priesthood and 
ceremonial law. 

So among the Hebrews, the Rabbis, limited in 
amount of scientific material, exercised a great in- 
genuity in dealing with it; but nevertheless, iri the last 
analysis authority was the deciding factor. 

D. Turning to the essential features of Egyptian 
education, probably the most ancient as well as one 
of the most enduring of all ancient systems, were: 
1, the controling influence of caste in social life and 
education; 2, The control of the education of all lower 
castes through a system of family training, and caste- 
apprenticeship; 3, the control of society by a politico- 
religious priestcraft, to which belonged the keeping of 
the religious literature, upon which their society and 
their education was based; 4, the prominence of 
mathematical, scientific and philosophical elements in 
this literature, in the education of this priesthood, and 
in their investigations; 5, the mediating character of 
their education as contrasted with the Oriental educa- 
tion on one hand, and the education of the Greeks on 
the other. 



SELF- ACTIVITY 53 

So in Egypt, the dominance of the priestly class 
opposed any self-activity, salvation being attained by 
memorization of the saving texts. 

E. We cannot leave Oriental education without 
touching upon Persian methods; but it is significant 
enough that they are preserved to us in Greek descrip- 
tions. Xenephon describes the education of the 
Persian noble, and it certainly affords a measure of 
application of Greek ideals. The victorious career of 
the Persian cause was no doubt due to this peculiarly 
individualistic training in physical valor and dexterity; 
in truth-telling, and other virtues, and only secondarily 
in traditional information. But the ephemeralism 
of the Persian Empire shows how unstable was the 
social organization produced by these individualistic 
warriors. On the other hand, the Magi who mon- 
opolized learning were so permanent as to endow civil- 
ization with their names — as "magicians." But as 
they were in political control, their stability was not 
able to infiltrate and immortalize the body politic, 
which, however, might have endured longer but for 
the irruption of Alexander and his Greek cohorts. 

Still, in Persia, the conception of life as a struggle 
in which good prevails was a distinct prelude to self' 
activity, on the physical and moral sides, at least. 

While, by the same ingenuity, the Saracens made 
many discoveries, nevertheless the fatal resignation of 
Islam and orthodox loyalty to their founder did not 
allow them really to develop self-activity. 

Summing up Oriental education, therefore, we see 
an entire lack of initiative. Evidently, systems which 
provided no change, alteration or progress, could 
not allow for individual renovation of teachings, cus- 
toms, or views. The whole political establishment 
condemned the individual in advance. Even physical 
prowess was uncultivated, and those great civilizations 
lasted only so long as no irruptive force proved itself 



54 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

superior to the natural physical resources of defence. 
Of itself, the Chinese state was powerless, except for 
the Great Wall; every army that crossed the Hima- 
layas afresh conquered India, as did Alexander, and 
the Mahometans; Egypt, ever sensitive to the southern 
tribes, was spoiled by Greek, Medo-Persian, Roman and 
Mahometan in turn. With no great physical prowess 
as part of its ideals, the permanence of the state de- 
pended on unconditional conformity of the individuals; 
except in individual cases, originality was out of the 
question. 

In all Oriental education, therefore, the individuality 
has not yet emerged from fossilized ancestral tradition 
(China) ; the state (Persia) ; caste (India) or theo- 
cracy (the Jews). 



GREEK EDUCATION. 

The beginnings of self-activity in education appear 
in the dawn of Greek civilization where "some ex- 
pression of individuality is thought compatible with, 
even desirable for, social stability and welfare,"^ which 
included progress. It was^ the modern conception: 
"the formulation of principles of conduct into which 
the volition of the individual entered, and through 
which he rose to moral freedom by a recognition of 
his own moral responsibility." 

This self-activitys was worked out on the thought 
side by love of knowledge for its own sake; by inquiries 
into nature, man, the supernatural, reality divorced 
from awe, reverence or priestly privilege; curiosity, 
intellectual bravery, and imagination drove Plato to 
say, "Let us follow the argument wherever it leads." 

We must not, however, shrink from noticing the 
extreme to which this led: their versatility, became 
insincerity and dishonesty; light heartedness, became 



SELF-ACTIVITY 55 

frivolity, licentiousness; keenness of thought, became 
hair-spplitting sophistry; appreciation of form, became 
talkativeness and rhetorical show> They lost sight 
of honor, honesty, loyalty, compassion and reverence 
for age.^ 

Another form of clearly individualistic teaching was 
Socrates's "maieutics," or art of giving birth to ideas, 
which proposed to impart the virtue of knowledge by 
developing in each the power of thought.® The 
method of imparting this was by endless dialogues, 
and was evidently fitted for no more than individual 
instruction. The individual was left free, both pupil 
and teacher'^ in the new Greek education. 



ROMAN EDUCATION. 

Self-activity was not entirely unknown among the 
Romans: Quintilian points out the proper attitude of 
the teacher to the pupil, and emphasizes the fact that 
different natures demand different treatment; activity 
of the mind is natural. 



MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

Of self-activity there evidently was but little during 
the monastic periods, when obedience was a virtue; 
nevertheless, even this rule could not always restrain 
periods of revival of interests, as under Charlemagne. 
Finally the collapse of chivalry, under the crusades, 
and the entrance of Arabic learning and the true 
Aristotle, with sociologic heresies among the common 
people, together with mysticism, and converts, as a 
legacy of the hysteria of the crusades, formed a Pre- 
Renaissance, which was controlled by Franciscans, 
Dominicans and the Inquisition. But the intellectual 
readjustment also forced by these causes, formed 



56 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

scholasticism; whose nominalistic results (William of 
Occam) opened the way for the Renaissance itself. 
But it was the universities that developed the principles 
of liberty. For good causes, they became thoroughly 
socialized, and attained such power as to be repre- 
sented in parliaments; and with the aid of the king 
caused one pope to recant, and another to be deposed. 
The University of Paris became the representative in- 
stitution of France, as the Holy Roman Empire was of 
Germany, No doubt this was the ultimate cause of 
the revolution, and the self-activity preached by Mon- 
taigne. This spirit of self-activity was kept alive in 
the universities, and produced such men as Roger 
Bacon, Dante, Petrarch, Wycliffe, Huss, Copernicus, 
the men who introduced the modern spirit. 

RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

The principle of self-activity was practically fore- 
shadowed at the Renaissance by the reawakening of 
interest in the psychological world of emotions whence 
springs poetry, history, and the sciences. So Petrarch® 
emphasized the values of the opportunitites of this life 
for self-development through the greatest variety of 
experiences and efforts wholly forbidden by the asceti- 
cism and self-abnegation of the mediaeval spirit. The 
Renaissance remained true to the development and 
culture of the individual, having little interest in the 
improvement of society in general, in Italy. The 
life of the ancients^ portrayed both the intellectual 
and emotional sides of the development of the free 
moral personality. Vittorino de Feltre, in his school, 
"The House of Pleasure," made his pupils' life as 
active as possible, using the natural activities of the 
children as a basis for much of the work, and he laid 
strong emphasis upon activities and upon the construc- 
tive side of the work as furnishing an immediate in- 



SELF-ACTIVITY 57 

troduction into a useful life. Erasmus also^^ insisted 
on utilizing the activity of the child. 

REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

As we have seen, individuality was hardly desired on 
either side of the Reformation struggle, and the only 
self-activity which existed lay in the leaders of the 
various movements — such as Luther, Loyola, Aqua- 
viva, Calvin, and Melanchthon. True, Luther said 
that children should not be checked in everything; but 
stern discipline still existed. 

MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne diagnosed the cause of pedantry as know- 
ing the disease, but not the patient; literature should 
not be known for its own sake, but should be filtered 
through the individuality. The teacher^ ^ should not 
pour into the pupil, but let the pupil taste and speak 
first. The pupil should accept no authority — no, not 
even Aristotle's — and should not learn by rote. We 
may^2 q^\\ pollen from everywhere, but must be at 
liberty to make our own honey. 

The teacher should therefore be very careful not 
to fail to recognize the supreme authority of the 
pupil's recognition of truth; the teacher should ac- 
quiesce in truth, reason carefully, and gladly acknowl- 
edge an error.^^ So may one learn something even 
from a peasant, bricklayer or other humble worker^'*: 
this is the reward of open-mindedness and self-activity. 
We should learn what to know, what makes us free; 
learning first our own sphere, and being wise and 
good; later acquiring physics, geometry, rhetoric, and 
science. 



58 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

MULCASTER. 
Though not using the term "self-activity," Mul- 
caster^^ insisted that "the end of education and train- 
ing is to help nature to her perfection," not to force, 
repress the child, and deprive it of its natural tenden- 
cies and activities. 

COMENIUS. 
Comenius's analysis of the three stages of education 
are psychologically, 1, to know oneself (and with one- 
self all things) ; 2, to rule oneself; 3, to direct oneself 
towards God — roughly corresponding to imitation, 
habit and volition. Moreover,^*^ he formally enunciates 
that the basis of the efficiency of administration is the 
exact order borrowed from nature. 

LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

Locke, as a thorough-going naturalist, made full 
allowance for the self-activity of the child's curiosity, 
of which due advantage should be taken. On the 
whole, he was, in this, following and developing 
Montaigne. 

The principle of self-activity being established, there 
appeared the very natural problem of how to conduct 
regular and organized work. The answer is, that the 
problem of education is to get the pupil to ask what 
he should learn; and besides, the pupil's mind must 
gain such self-mastery, as that he shall be spontane- 
ously in tune at the right time, and in the right way. 
For there is a danger^'^ that waiting for seasons of the 
mind's being "in tune" might, by habitual neglect, in- 
duce idleness. 

ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

Rousseau's "negative education" is the typical form 
of self-activity. The child was to be left free to de- 



SELF-ACTIVITY 59 

velop unaided by outside influences or instruction. 
Physical welfare, the training of organs and members, 
curiosity, and socializing morality and religion in suc- 
cessive stages caused the unfoldment of his being. But 
it is to be noticed that the result of this was delayed 
and partial accomplishment; on Rousseau's own show- 
ing, self-activity would be but an inefficient spring of 
complete education. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 

FROEBEL. 

Self-activity is pre-eminently a Froebelian idea; and 
its assertion resulted in the modern changes of cur- 
riculum and socialization. Though Froebel applied 
his principle only to the kindergarten, its influence has 
spread everywhere, and appears wherever emphasis 
is laid more on the activity of the child than on the 
technique of the process of instruction; and whenever 
development of character and personality is sought, 
rather than the impartation of information and train- 
ing of intellectual abilities. ^^ 

In 1829 Froebel expressed the realization that chil- 
dren^^ are creative rather than receptive creatures, and 
that all educational work should be based on this in- 
herent tendency of children to express themselves in 
action; of this instruction, the first law was self- 
activity. 

Nature revealed God to the child^''; hence natural 
phenomena were used symbolically in his successive 
"gifts," arranged in an order of development whose 
method was self-activity, the secret of evolution, ac- 
cording to Lamarck (A.D. 1802-9). 

The self-activity of Froebel was different from that 
of Pestalozzi, in that the latter was learning facts, 
while the former was seeking unity with others in the 



60 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

whole being, and never progressed beyond the primary 
stage. 

MONTESSORI. 

Developing the methods of Froebel and Pestalozzi, 
Montessori stresses self-activity, limiting it^^ only by 
the possible wearying, in an undue effort of auto- 
education, where the teacher's guidance steps in. Edu- 
cation is to guide activity, not repress it. The child 
has a right to be active, to explore his environment 
and develop his own inner resources through every 
form of investigation and creative effort^^ The school 
must permit the free, natural manifestations of the 
child. 22 The school needs not the mechanism of a 
bench, but the conquest of liberty.^^ This traditional 
slavery has applied not only to the body, but the 
spirit.2^ The history of civilization is that of libera- 
tion. ^6 The teacher must restrain himself, and watch, 
in order to bring about the spontaneous progress of 
the child. ^'^ Auto-education is assured by the arousal 
of sense activity.^^ We must also seek spontaneous 
psychic activity, to complete the spontaneous develop- 
ment of the mental, spiritual and physical personality.^^ 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 

Kant taught liberty for the child by negative educa- 
tion; they should be allowed to learn for themselves.^^ 
He was much more concerned for the culture of the 
human faculties than for the acquisition of knowl- 
edge.3* 

The servility of the German school-boy shows how 
little self-activity he is expected to have, or is allowed. 
The result of this is that when, at the university, ex- 
ternal restraints are removed, the student mistakes 
fancy and license for self-active responsibility, with 
the result that many sink into intemperance, never to 
rise. 



SELF-ACTIVITY 61 

What self-activity the German boy possesses is 
translated into the permissible form of musical ac- 
tivities — hence also their predominance in a field little 
occupied by his French or American cousins, who can 
employ their activities in emulation or in sports, re- 
spectively. 

Russell^o asks whether the German pupil becomes 
an independent thinker? "Granting good teachers, my 
answers are: No; so far as the poorest one concerned; 
very doubtful for the average; but emphatically yes, 
for the best in the class." 



FRENCH EDUCATION. 

The Christian Brothers made an attempt to arouse 
the child's self-active comprehension by using cate- 
chetical, quiz, questioning methods in instruction. 

As noticed above, Jacotot based his paradox that all 
can teach on the fact that all can arouse self-activity, 
after which interest will ensure completion of the 
process. 

Condillac^^ places far above the education which we 
receive the education that we give ourselves; on 
saying farewell to his princely pupil, the grandson of 
Louis XV, he said, *'It is only the education I gave you 
which ceases. You are to begin anew." 

Ramus had long since insisted on the Socratic 
method of "maieutics." He had renovated logic, and 
emphasized the vernacular. 

It must be granted that in the French secondary 
lyec6 the child's self-activity is lessened. His life is 
lived by schedule; after his choice of study-groups, 
there is no further hesitation. However, where self- 
activity has been most experimented with, in the 
"natural method" of teaching modern languages, the 
results have been least thorough, and have raised 



62 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

fundamental questions as to the learning foreign 
languages at all, or substitution for English of Spanish 
or Italian. 35 The question therefore arises whether 
self-activity and scholarship do not vary in inverse 
ratio; which possibility is supported by the observation 
that the ideal self-active child, Rousseau's Emile, post- 
poned his secondary education to the time usually 
allotted to the tertiary, and lacked the latter entirely. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

In dealing with the American child, the problem, 
obviously, is not a development of self-activity, but its 
proper, effective and educative disposal. The spoiled 
American child, indulged in candy and flirting, bribed 
by parents to habits of self-respect and industry, needs 
management and skilful repression rather than ad- 
ditional excitement of self-activity. Nevertheless, the 
right kind of self-active creativeness and acquisition 
of knowledge may need to be awakened and directed 
in an expert manner. 

It is instructive, however, to notice that the need of 
awakening self-activity is most talked about in America, 
where such awakening is really least needed. 



1 Monroe, p. 54. 2 ib., 55. 642. I9 1b., 644. 20 Jb., 649. 

3 lb., 55. 4 lb., 60. 5 lb., 61. 21 Montessori, 224. 22ib., xxi. 

6 lb., 126. 7McEvoy, 38. 23 ib., 15. 24 ib., 19. 25 ib., 

8 Monroe, 359. » lb., 364. 21. 26 ib., 22. 27 ib., 228. 

1 McEvoy, 124. n Montaigne, 28 ib., 229. 29 ib., 230. so Rus- 

Education, 175. 12 jb., 177. sell, French and German 

13 lb., 182. 13 lb., 183. 15 Mon- Schools, 327. 3i Compayre, 

roe, 467. le Comenius, Great 334. 32 ib., 335. 33ib.„ 318. 

Didactic, 14. i^ Locke, Theory 34 ib., 335. 35 Parringdon, 235. 
©f Education, 75. 1 ^ Monroe, 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 63 



CHAPTER VI. 

Self -Consciousness. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

Primitive people interpret their environment in 
terms of themselves; every phenomenal reality reveals 
a "double," which controls it, explains it, makes it 
oppose man. This "animism" is no result of reflec- 
tion; just like a child the primitive man has not yet 
differentiated psychologically between himself and his 
environment. His own spirit or "double" has moved 
around in dreams; it abandons him temporarily; in 
trance or swoon; death is only its permanent removal, 
which might occur in any person, animal, or thing. 
Insanity, idiocy or epilepsy may be the result of ob- 
session by some "double" that is hostile, or divine. 
When he dies, his domestic animals are killed that they 
may follow him; cooking utensils are put in the grave, 
for their "doubles" to serve him; and to his spirit 
offerings of food are made. The world of "doubles" 
is an immaterial counterpart of this; circumstances are 
good or bad as they are guided by good or bad spirits; 
who can be mollified by gifts; they may, like the Zulu's 
"unkulunkulu," be their great-grandfather. Animism 
is the primitive man, religion, science, philosophy, all 
in one. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

"What Heaven has conferred is called nature; an 
accordance with nature is called the path of duty." 



64 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

If, then, "return to nature" is a doctrine, the Chinese 
hold it. But the further question is, what is this 
nature? If modern writers cannot agree on a psychol- 
ogy, we should not exact agreement from the Chinese; 
and their fearless insistence on three things — imitation, 
habit and virtue — are indeed, as far as they go, as 
perfectly correct, as were Pestalozzi's observations, 
though he did not proceed as far as Herbart. So, as 
to virtue, "man inclines to virtue, as water does to 
flow downward, or as the wild beast does to seek the 
forest." 

"Ethics and education are no more than to preserve 
nature, and direct man in its ways." That is the char- 
acteristic contribution of Mencius. 

But, of course, a doctrine of a "return to nature" 
implies that nature is good, perfect, and ideal. The 
first line the Chinese child learns is: 

"Men at their birth are, by nature, radically good." 
On this presumption, that nature is a revelation of 
God, is based the whole principle of a "return to 
nature." So we use the word "natural," as a word 
of commendation, in modern times — often in spite of 
our dogmas. 

Confucius said: "I teach you nothing but what you 
might learn yourselves — the observance of the funda- 
mental laws of relation between sovereign and subject, 
father and child, and husband and wife — and the five 
cardinal virtues — universal charity, impartial justice, 
conformity to established ceremonies and usages, 
rectitude of heart and mind, and pure sincerity." 
Confucius's revelation was therefore merely a re- 
formulation of natural rules. 

In India, this "nature" was very little developed; 
on the contrary, the ultimate object was self-annihila- 
tion. In Persia, for the first time, we have the virtues 
of truthfulness, justice and courage developed by the 
genuinely natural process of physical training. 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 65 

Persian education was too military to care much for 
psychology; however, its beginnings of physical train- 
mg constituted a very definite return to nature. 

The Egyptian educational training for survival in 
another existence made the existence of the soul a 
cardinal principle, even though it was imagined in 
materialistic terms; it led to a detailed psychology, 
which underlay their methods of salvation by imitative 
and memnonical education. 



GREEK EDUCATION. 

It was the Greeks who first considered progress in- 
dividual and social as desirable, and hence, encouraged 
liberty of initiative and judgment.^ 

But their efforts stopped short of the moral life: 
they were unable to formulate adequate sanctions for 
moral principles. For the few philosophers, the moral 
elevation of Socrates and Plato may have been effec- 
tive; but not for the people, as is shown by the writings 
of the tragedians. For the multitude, the Hebrews 
were to supply religious sentiment, and thus complete 
the unfinished Greek structure.^ The Greek mind 
remained chiefly secular.^ 

Nevertheless, they had one gift, in whose domain 
they achieved results quite distinctive: the aesthetic 
ability to express a general truth in concrete embodi- 
ment.^ They depended for interpretation on the 
imagination rather than on reason, creating in 
sculpture, painting, music, poetry, forms of expressions, 
under the patronages of the Muses, called the beautiful. 
They thus generalized and abstracted, conceiving of 
law as an art. 

The Athenian method of training youths by conver- 
sation, by attendance at banquets, theatres and law- 
courts, was practically an object-lesson demonstration, 
a close contact with nature. 



66 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Aristotle taught that pedagogy should be based on 
a knowledge of the individual.^ Plato also founded his 
whole system of education on psychology. According 
to him, the soul consists of three parts: the appetite, 
which is tamable; the spirit, the element of courage, 
which can be enlisted on the side of either good or 
evil; the philosophic element — the source of wisdom, 
culture and love. 'The duty of education is to con- 
trol the appetite, and so to balance the other elements 
of the soul that each may tend to the perfection of the 
other."® The cardinal virtues which corresponded to 
these psychological elements were courage, truthful- 
ness, self-control, honor to parents, and love for one's 
fellow-citizens. 

ROMAN EDUCATION. 

We must never forget that it was Juvenal who 
formulated the ever memorable principle of education: 
"Maxima debetur pueris reverentia"; it was the be- 
ginning of the assertion of nature, of the paedocentric 
idea of education. Quintilian proceeds further along 
this line and urges the study of the dispositions of the 
pupils by the teachers. Seneca considers that the 
aim of education is to overcome the evil tendencies 
within the individual; it is a life-long task, thought 
Cicero. Here we see the beginning of the idea that 
the nature of man is evil. 



MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

The rude education of the monastic period demanded 
no underlying psychology; but after Charlemagne's 
revival of learning, the education of the mystics was 
based on that of Plotinos and his Neoplatonism, and 
of Dionysius the Areopagite. Monroe^ says: "The 
soul is immaterial and immortal because it belongs to 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS dl 

the world of reality — of ideas or spirits. Its nature is 
threefold: the lowest or animal part is bound up with 
the body; the logical or reasoning part of the soul is 
its peculiarly human part; third, the superhuman or 
spiritual part is that by which or in which man is 
identified with the highest intelligence — that is, the 
divine. Hence there are three excellencies of the 
soul, three stages of experience." So said Hugo of St. 
Victor: "The way to God is to descend in one's self." 



RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

The Renaissance lays the foundations of modern 
education through interest in psychology, making the 
child the centre of study, a return to nature, and a 
combination of these. So Petrarch^ shows the first 
sign of that attitude of self-analysis that becomes a 
characteristic note in modern literature and thought. 
Erasmus also taught objective methods,^*^ "things 
rather than words." 

The aim of all study, according to Aeneas Sylvius, ^^ 
is character, our only sure possession. The moral 
element is asserted from a secular standpoint, and is 
accompanied by a non-ascetic object. 

Evidently the Renaissance was a sort of declaration 
of independence by the human reason against the 
bondage of intrusion by the social and spiritual ele- 
ments. It is not an isolated phenomenon: it is a 
symptom of a tendency, which had already manifested 
under Charlemagne, and in the thirteenth century 
under the lead of the Franciscans, Dominicans, the 
Saracen learning, the Wandering Scholar, and the 
poets, notably Dante. But none of these half-way 
measures succeeded: all failed except direct rejection 
of mediaeval Christianity, and the reintroduction of 
Greco-Roman culture. 



68 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

The Reformation has often been described as the 
birth or emancipation of individuahty; but the burning 
of Servetus by Calvin testifies to its being merely a 
substitute of one authority for another, except for the 
fortunate leaders who were able to impose their views 
on the countries reformed by decree of their sover- 
eigns. On the other hand, the Jesuit educational sys- 
tem was just as bitterly opposed to individuality. The 
threefold Jesuit object is witness to this; they accepted 
no novices who were not docile, or who were fond of 
innovations. Their efficient discipline of emulation was 
based on espionage, joined to adroitly introduced re- 
ligious motives. As to the members of the order, their 
oath to be "perinde ac cadaver" in the hands of their 
superiors, joined to their continual espionage on each 
other, destroyed utterly any leanings towards indi- 
viduality. Of course they, as well as the Reformers, 
juggled with the word "reason," but really it meant 
nothing, but a convenient cloak for their preferences. 
As Macaulay observes, "the Jesuits seemed to have 
found the point up to which intellectual development 
could be carried, without reaching intellectual inde- 
pendence." 

MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne's object in education was to produce a 
gentleman — not a logician or rhetorician. ^^ He began 
this progress early, and thus developed a broad culture 
at an effective age. The individuality was always 
held as the end of the learning, through which the 
latter was only to filter. The education was not that 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 69 

of a body or soul, but of a man. With this continual 

insistence on the character (the teaching of philosophy 

from early adolescence to late senescence), and the 

early teaching of how to live, of goodness and virtue, 

the individuality could not well fail to develop. So 

said Cicero: "The best of all arts — that of living well — 

they followed in their lives, rather than in their learn- 
ing. ^^ 

MULCASTER. 

Mulcaster's^^ psychological grouping of "art to con- 
ceive by, memory to retain, discretion to discern by," 
is a conception of education according to nature in 
much saner a form than, for instance, Rousseau's. 



RATKE. 

Ratke's chief principle^^ was that everything should 
be done in natural order, in the course of nature. "Since 
nature uses a particular method, proper to herself, 
with which the understanding of man is in a certain 
connection, regard must be had to it also in the art of 
teaching; for all unnatural, violent, or forcible teach- 
ing and learning is harmful, and weakens nature." 
This "natural method" was bequeathed to his pupil 
Comenius. 

COMENIUS. 

Hitherto^^ education had, 1, eradicated natural de- 
sires, instincts and emotions; and 2, by furnishing a 
mental and moral discipline towards that end. Comen- 
ius, on the other hand, sought his religious end, 1, 
through self-control based on, 2, knowledge of one- 
self and all things; whereby emerged, knowledge, 
virtue and piety, 



70 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



MONTAIGNE. 

In discussing the psychology and individuality of the 
child, it is not out of place to study also the ultimate 
end or purpose of the individual. Although when off 
his dogmatic guard, Comenius assigned as the indi- 
vidual's end prolongation of the life,^'' yet he begins 
by an inherited statement that it lies beyond this world 
in eternity, ^^ which indeed is true in a spiritual sense. 

RABELAIS. 

Rabelais had already insisted on things rather than 
words.^^ 



LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

When the Reformed world had burst the straight- 
jacket of the Latin languages, the scholastic teaching 
Latin survived. The natural conservation of the school 
systems there attempted to justify it on the ground 
that in education the important part was not the thing, 
but its process, or training. This was supported by 
religious conservative needs both of the language, and 
of eradication of the evil elements of our nature. It 
was also supported by the old Aristotelian "faculty"- 
psychology which demanded a training of the various 
faculties of the mind by appropriate disciplines formu- 
lated into school procedures. While Locke rejected 
the "innate ideas," and considered the mind a "tabula 
rasa," he attributed the development of mental virtues, 
powers and facilities, entirely to habitual experience, 
whose disciplinary training thereby became the most 
important element of growth. This is the reason why 
he is pedagogically classed as a disciplinarian. This 
disciplinary conception then holds, ^^ i, that a selected 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 71 

habitual experience produces a power or ability of the 
mind which, 2, can be transferred as available to other 
situations and problems; 3, few subjects well studied 
were worth more than a smattering of many. 

No consideration was given to the special demands 
of the various avocations, nor to the special aptitudes 
of the pupil; pupils unable to meet the demands of 
such a training were thereby confessedly incapable of 
greater opportunities. 

This conception of development of "powers" or 
"faculties" of mind through appropriate discipline 
still persists, and is held in practice even by those 
whose theoretical psychology (like Herbart's), denies 
the existence of "powers" or "faculties." No doubt 
there is some truth underlying it, truth which survives 
the bandying about of the human soul by various 
schools of psychologists. 

Locke's "ruling passion" was love for truth, whose 
guide was reason, but which could be followed by the 
mind only when educated to this end by rigid dis- 
cipline. 

Locke^^ found in education three aspects — the 
fundamental basis of the physical; moral (virtue, 
breeding, wisdom), and knowledge, or learning. 

Locke was a thorough naturalist, and thus cleared 
the way for Rousseau, who used Locke's negative 
foundation; but substituted for Locke's psychological 
disciplinarianism his own fancies, such as the social 
contract, the incompatibility of nature with society, 
the denial of habit, the learning by experience, and so 
forth. Locke's reasonable authority is thus discovered 
to be no more than his own psychological opinion, 
which might as easily be supplanted by any other 
theories. Both Locke and Rousseau needed the sani- 
fying arbitrament of experimental psychology. 



72 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

As to the progress of the individual, exemplified by 
Rousseau's Emile, we must define our terms. Of 
progress there is some, if we understand the natural un- 
aided "negatively" educated child acting as he pleases; 
and that is retarded several years, without the finishinig 
university stage; of the individuality, there is some, if 
thereby you mean selfishness; the late development of 
altruism from fifteen to twenty years of age seems 
quite unconnected with preliminary stages, and very 
doubtful — unlikely to occur in reality. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
PESTALOZZL 

Psychological education is the development by in- 
terest, of genius implanted in our nature, from three 
sources of knowledge: experimental experience, meta- 
physics and mathematics, denying the existence of any 
faculties. Pestalozzi's great aim was to base educa- 
tion on experience, and to "psychologize" it.^^ Edu- 
cation is little more than the organic development of 
the individual — mental, moral and physical — the 
natural, progressive, harmonious development of all 
the powers and faculties of the human being. 

Sense impressions^* are Pestalozzi's chief psycho- 
logic basis: the sources of psychological instruction 
are: 1, Nature: the mind rises from sense impressions 
to clear ideas. All phenomena are sense impressions, 
which may be related. Mere vigor of impressions may 
lead either to truth or error, onesided bias may con- 
fuse; yet complex sense impressions rest on simple 
elements, while the accuracy of knowledge is increased 
with the number of the senses employed; 2, power of 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 73 

sense impressions interwoven witli emotions; 3, rela- 
tion of outer conditions to one's own power of learn- 
ing. 

All knowledge^ flows from three sources: 1, the 
power of making sounds — the origin of language; 

2, from indefinite simple sensuous power of forming 
images, out of which arise consciousness of form; and 

3, from definite, no longer mere sensuous, power of 
imagination, from which flow consciousness of unity 
and calculation. Sense-impressions^^ are the absolute 
foundation of knowledge. 

HERBART. 

Herbart^'^ saw clearly that Pestalozzian pedagogy 
was limited to elementary education because, 1, Pes- 
talozzi actually limited himself practically to that 
field; and 2, his observational sense-impression method 
referred principally thereto. Hence it is no more than 
an introduction; a basis, or foundation for the higher 
work of mental growth and assimilation, developing 
into moral character. ' 

Herbart therefore added these sense perceptions by 
appreciative process; they were converted into ideas 
which, through the process of instruction, bear on the 
moral character, whose moral and aesthetic presenta- 
tion of the universe is the chief end of education, made 
up not only of experience, but of human converse and 
instruction. 

While Pestalozzi wished to "psychologize educa- 
tion," he constructed only a basis, on which Herbart 
built his superstructure, logically and philosophically, 
establishing educational work on the basis of a unified 
mental life and development of the child, whom he 
made the centre of study. Monroe thus states this 
development^^: 'This then is Herbart's great con- 
tribution to education. The movement which Locke 



74 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

began in making tlie cliild the centre of educational 
endeavor and pedagogical tlieory; whicli Rousseau es- 
tablished in general form through his brilliant critical 
and destructive work in the form of investigative 
literature; which Pestalozzi brought down to the 
schoolroom and made concrete in the hands of every 
teacher, that movement Herbart made permanent by 
giving it an actual scientific basis in place of the 
imaginative one of Rousseau, and the empirical one 
of Pestalozzi." 

Herbart's psychological foundation was not a very 
great advance on Locke's: the soul is an unity, devoid 
of intuitive or inborn faculties, at birth a blank, pos- 
sessing but one power — that of entering into relation 
with its environment through the nervous system,^^ 
and receiving thereby its primary "presentations" of 
sense-perception, whose interactions lead through 
generalizations to concepts, the interaction of which 
leads to judgments and reasonings. These interactions 
are assimiliations of ideas by means of ideas already 
acquired, and result in "apperception-masses." These 
originate from two sources, experience, or contact 
with nature; and intercourse, or contact with society. 
These are the material of the teacher, and by expan- 
sion of the one original power the teacher has to de- 
velop from experience knowledge, and from inter- 
course sympathy. 

PESTALOZZI. 

Sensation, with Pestalozzi, was formed by the ele- 
ments of number, form and language; to these Herbart 
adds taste, and obligation, the "aesthetic presentations" 
— the fitting, the beautiful, moral, the just: in one 
word, that which in its perfect state pleases after per- 
fect contemplation. 

There is no independent function of will; only a 
''motivation" consisting of desires and good will spring- 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 75 

ing into action from presentation. The making of the 
will is discovered by the pupil himself when choosing 
the good and rejecting the bad; thus is the true self- 
developed. 

FROEBEL. 

From Froebel's training^^ emerged two great re- 
sults: a profound love for nature and a conviction that 
throughout nature was revealed that unity of idea and 
realization that was preached in the philosophy of 
Schlegel, at the university, but nowhere found in edu- 
cational work. 

In the life of the individuals^ there is the same unity 
— of the stages of infancy, childhood, youth, and man- 
hood, which must be unified in one complete educa- 
tion. 

So Froebel insisted on the unity of knowing, feeling 
and willing activities of the mind — a psychology prob- 
ably truer than Herbart's.^*' 

Froebel first applied to education the evolutionary 
theory of development, of continuous self-determina- 
tion. 

This education seeks neither to eliminate nature, nor 
to let it severely alone, but to help nature — to guide 
it to ends higher than those it would reach unaided, or 
at least to secure these ends by readier and more direct 
means.s^ 

MONTESSORI. 

The object of the Montessori method is to awake the 
children, 32 encouraging them to educate themselves. 
This of course, is the result of self-activity and interest, 
which this system specially stresses. 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 

Kant's chief interest in education lay in character- 
development, a practical education combining the con- 



16 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

duct and the training of the wilL He, too, had evolved 
a sort of culture-epoch theory by seeing that the child 
passed through three stages, in each of which he needed 
a different treatment. As infant, he needed nursing, 
as child, he needed discipline; and as scholar, he re- 
quired teaching^^; while the education must be "not 
for the present, but for a possibly improved condition 
of man in the future." 

During the secondary school-period, the German 
student has, if possible, less individuality than in 
France. This is shown by the prodigious thoroughness 
of the gymnasium work; the life-long social disgrace 
for self and family, of failure; and the alarming rate of 
suicide of German school-boys. Nevertheless, during 
his earlier university days, suggested by the "Lehrfrei- 
heit" of the professors, the German youth is left to 
sink or swim as he enjoys the license of individual 
fancy, while his French cousin is still driven year by 
year to examinations more exacting the further he 
advances. If the German survives, he develops con- 
siderable self-control, and the thoroughness of his re- 
searches is proverbial. In a very peculiar sense, there- 
fore, is the German university the representative field 
for the exercise of individuality; before this the child 
had been considered more an object, than a subject. 
What appeal to nature there is, is applied to walking- 
trips in the forest and mountains, for which the German 
is famous. 

FRENCH EDUCATION. 

Jacotot, however, fearlessly appealed to nature — 
that all can learn and teach; learning by correlating the 
three basic principles of the successive education 
stages; and teach, by arousing interest through self- 
activity. 

Condillac'5 thought that the first thing to be done is 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 11 

to make the child acquainted with the faculties of his 
soul, and to make him feel the need of making use of 
them. His chief effort was to make of his prince-pupil 
a reasoning being — as Locke had said, "We must 
reason with our children." 

Diderot was sure that instruction was morally effica- 
cious, that the progress of dress symbolized purity of 
morals.^^ 

Helvitius had^'^ insisted that the senses were all 
there was of man. 

Condorcet, on the contrary,^* was a fanatic on the 
subject of progress, its conditions and laws; and its 
most potent means being instruction, he did all in his 
power to promote it. 

In France the individuality of the child is powerfully 
promoted by the sanctions of emulation and rewards 
and punishments. The system of specialization pro- 
motes individualistic expertness; yet, as M. Demolins 
has well noticed, this communistic formation uses this 
indfvidualization with inexorable exclusion for national 
advancement; the individual is a means, not an end. 

This attitude might well be criticized from the 
Froebelian standpoint of the child himself; but it might 
be replied there was a difference between the child's 
destiny and his fancies. The over-emphasizing of 
Froebelian kindergarten-play-habit has already been 
censured, so that the expression the "child himself" 
should not be limited to the child's fancies, but be 
considered socially from the standpoint of his inevitable 
function and career. Here expertness becomes the 
child's interest; even though Froebel well added that 
this individualisement should never become merely 
a means, but be a factor co-ordinate with the social 
needs. 

It is evident that the individuality thus is not entirely 
considered the supreme good. This may be a survival 
from the ideas of the Jansenists, that the child's nature 



7^ TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

was wholly evil, and that education must eradicate this, 
and replace it with the religious spirit. St. Ceyran^^ 
had said that the devil already possesses the soul of 
even the unborn child. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION, 
ENGLISH PEDAGOGY. 

Probably the most recent and important appeal to 
nature of modern times, Herbert Spencer's, resulted in 
a tentative psychological scheme: 1, direct self-preser- 
vation; 2, indirect self-preservation by acquisition of 
necessaries of life; 3, the rearing of children; 4, social 
demands and citizenship; 5, literature, art and aesthetics 
for the leisure part of life. 

It was Thomas Arnold (1795-1842; of Rugby and 
Winchester) who made Christian character an educa- 
tional idea. This implicit trust in students was an 
incentive self-control. 

Next to him was Alexander Bain of Aberdeen (born 
1818) who applied physiological psychology to "edu- 
cation and science." He taught conservation and cor- 
relation of forces, of mental and physical relations; 
resulting in study of fatigue, nervous disorder, and 
defective children. 



AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 

There is not much need of a return to nature in 
Americn schools, because all the school organizations 
are yet in a formative condition; but there is need of 
a molding of institutions to the child's nature. The 
American man has a knack or instinctive tact which 
allows him to do this; and when he perfects himself in 
the Ziller psychological disposal of the material, should 



SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 



79 



become the best teacher, not even barring the German 
militarized pedagogical student, who has to deal only 
with terrified youngsters. The traditions of a school 
consisting of Mark Hopkins and his log show that the 
teacher, in order to deal with the unterrified American 
pupil should, after education, be given a free hand 
to develop his powers of individuality; indeed, with the 
American child, the problem is not so much a return to 
nature, as a keeping up with it. 



1 Monroe. 54. 2 ib., 55. 
3 lb., S3. 4 lb., 57. 5 MacEvoy, 
52. 6 Painter, 61. ^ Sat. xiv. 
8 Monroe, 282. » lb., 359. 
10 MacEvoy, 124. n Monroe, 
367. 12 Montaigne, Education, 
201. 13 Monroe, 461. i-* Mon- 
roe, 466. 467. 15 lb., 479. 
16 lb., 482. 17 Great Didactic, 
15. 18 lb., 2, 3. 19 MacEvoy, 



136. 20 Monroe, 506. 21 ib., 
518, 519. 22 lb., 514. 23 Tb.. 
600-607. 24 How Gertrude 
Educates, 80-83. 28 jb., 89. 
2 6 lb., 139. 27 Monroe, 623. 
2sib., 626. 29 lb., 643. so ib., 
650. 31 lb., 661. 3 Montessori, 
7n. 33 Monroe. 595. 34 Com- 
payre, 159. 35 lb.. 314. 36 Jb., 
320. 3 7 lb., 328. 38 lb., 381. 



80 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



CHAPTER VII. 
Discipline. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

The discipline of primitive education was sometimes: 
very brutal physically, including rites of self-mutilation, 
and useless suffering, merely to show the candidates' 
ability to survive it mentally and morally; or in obedi- 
ence to some prescribed rite. This attitude is still in 
existence in Germany, where it is advanced as justifi- 
cation of the unfortunate results of student's duels. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

The characteristic doctrine of Chinese life is "The 
path of the golden mean"; a perfect equilibrium of 
emotions and passion, between both extremes or vices, 
is virtue. "How is the path of the mean untrodden!" 
cries Confucius. 

From the western standpoint, such expressions would 
suggest a desirable balance between asceticism and 
luxury; but here again, words mislead. It means, 
thoroughgoing, effective and almost ferocious dis- 
cipline of any and all emotions. Witness the nameless 
torture of untold millions of women, deforming their 
feet — all of it not only useless, but crippling; also the 
deforming of the skulls of children. Discipline has 
been talked about considerably more by certain western 
writers, but no land, country or age ever enforced it 
more uselessly, ruthlessly, effectually and universally. 



DISCIPLINE 81 

Their Scripture says: "To educate without rigor shows 
a teacher's indolence." 

The Jesuit system, of substituting emulation and 
rewards for physical punishment, seems to have been 
anticipated in China, where the whole nation, includ- 
ing tlie office holders, is disciplined by examinations 
for higher offices. The whole of political advance- 
ment is devoted to prizes for examinational dexterity; 
the punishments are disgrace. 

Indeed, Chinese discipline is severe. The teacher^ 
keeps his rattan or bamboo hanging in a conspicuous 
place, and he uses scolding, castigation, starving, and 
imprisonment to incite diligence. For disobedience to 
parents even death is allowable. ^ 

Hindu discipline^ on the whole is mild; only after 
the failure of admonition is resort made to corporal 
punishment, either by the rod, by uncomfortable pos- 
ture, or by the pouring on the culprit of cold water.* 
In Persian education there may have been little, if no, 
corporal punishment^ for children, but Xenophon re- 
counts .that even judges were beaten severely if they 
erred. ^ 

The Persian's^ are said to have practiced no corporal 
punishment; but this seems due to their conception of 
life as a struggle, and to the whole of their education 
which, with the exception of some moral maxims and 
hymns, seems to have consisted of physical exercise 
and military service, that in itself would not have en- 
tailed any severe discipline. There was really nothing 
in this to drive a child to study. 

The Hebrews enforced, at times, a severe discipline.* 
Children could be made to fast, or be struck with a 
strap; but it seems to have been limited to the years 
after eleven.^ 

Indeed, the Talmud says, "load him like an ox"; 
however, it is also advised to treat the young, accord- 
ing to their strength.^** 



82 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Like the Hindu, the Hebrew was hemmed in by a 
burdensome, ceremonial ritual and detailed regulations 
for eating and social intercourse.^^ This was really 
a severe discipline. 

Management developed, however, and it is said in 
the Talmud that children shall be punished with one 
hand, and caressed with two.^^ 

Among the Orientals, therefore, discipline was as 
severe, as interest was only casual; the justification, 
therefore, no doubt, lying in the self-preservation of a 
race in that of its law, especially in times when it had 
to be safeguarded by force of arms. 



GREEK EDUCATION. 

Of course physical punishment was common in 
Sparta; even an Iren, if he did not properly tutor the 
boys in his charge, was punished, sometimes by the 
biting of his thumb.^^ The boys were trained to stoic- 
ism. The story of the boy who did not wince, when 
the fox he carried under his robe bit his vitals, is well- 
known. The pancratium was practiced, chiefly for 
disciplinary purposes. It was even customary upon 
frequent occasions to beat both the boys and the youths 
before the altar of Artemis, with such severity that 
death not infrequently ensued. 

No doubt this disciplinary severity was considerably 
relaxed in Athens; yet is it safe to say, that at no time 
were the Greeks likely to err by over-sentimentality, 
considering their treatment of slaves, women, and 
new-born babes; the poets furnish instances of even 
beating aged parents. The individual, therefore, was 
disciplined unmistakably. 

Plato himself advised the exposing of children.^* 
Besides,^^ he protests against the weakness of those 
parents, who seek to spare their children every trouble 



DISCIPLINE 83 

and even pain. "I am persuaded," says he, "that the 
inclination to humor the likings of children, is the 
surest of all ways to spoil them. We should not make 
too much haste in our search after what is pleasurable, 
especially as we shall never be wholly exempt from 
what is painful." Their education is "a very skilful 
discipline which, by way of amusement, leads the mind 
of the child to love that which is to make it finished." 



ROMAN EDUCATION. 

Discipline was no doubt strict in the Roman schools; 
but we find Quintilian, Seneca and Cicero arguing- for 
the abandonment of force therein. What was sub- 
stituted therefor? The concept of duty which was 
thoroughly Roman, applied to ethics: "The wise man 
will not sin, though both gods and men should over- 
look the deed; for it is not through the fear of punish- 
ment or of shame that he abstains from sin. It is from 
the desire and obligation of what is just and good." 
This is stoicism, originated by Epictetus, a Greek slave, 
in Roman territory; and Romanized by Marcus Aure- 
lius, and emperor, and Seneca, a statesman. 

MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

The mediaeval discipline of asceticism will be dis- 
cussed elsewhere. Chastity, poverty and obedience 
completed its moral significance; and by self-denial it 
achieved freedom from family, society and state. 
This was supplemented by the monastic rules — prom- 
inent among which were the Benedictine and the Cis- 
tercian; the latter being the severest, to all the restric- 
tions adding silence. 

In the secular world, life was no less a discipline; 
the career of chivalry was to be entered also by pes- 



84 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

sonal fitness realized by solemn vows, taken after a 
vigil in the Church. 

Last came the discipline of the Franciscans and 
Dominicans, and the more gruesome cruelty of the 
Inquisition. But notice, that all these, including the 
merii-slavery of the Jesuits, were counted worth while 
for the sake of the spiritual gain. It only goes to show 
the slight value of anything physical compared with 
the spirituaL 



RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

While, as we have seen, in the broader days of the 
Renaissance, physical exercise furnished the interest of 
study, when Humanism narrowed down its social 
activities, corporal punishment^^ furnished the incen- 
tive to study as well as to moral conduct. For this, 
however, Vittorino da Feltre, in his "Pleasant House," 
substituted self-government by the boys of the schooV'^ 
and a dependence on the natural interests of the pupil. 
Erasmus, too, deprecated the barbarous methods of 
discipline, advising the method of interest. ^^ 

This resulted in an obedience to, and respect for 
absolute authority which acted almost as elimination 
of individuality. 

However, what pictures we possess of^^ German 
secondary schools — and the British secondary tra- 
ditions, keep the rod in the most prominent position. 

REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

In the matter of discipline, there was no hesitation 
in Reformation-times. So Luther^^ says, "So that you 
hold them under discipline, and teach them self-re- 
spect ... he must be honorably trained to adhere to 
the principles of integrity, and to virtue, and to shun 



DISCIPLINE 85 

the contamination of vice." Nevertheless, Luther did 
not think that children should be checked in every- 
thing. "Our schools are no longer a hell and purga- 
tory where children are tortured, for with flogging, 
trembling, anguish and wretchedness, children learn 
nothing." The Jesuits must have understood this 
point, for they went the whole way, and did away with 
physical punishment, except in the most flagrant cases. 
They substituted for it a system of prize-giving, rivalry, 
or emulation; which succeeded very well. The Jan- 
senists, however, went back to the use of the rod. 
This spirit of rivalry, however, demanded the closest 
system of supervision and espionage. The pupils were 
divided into groups under monitors, while every pupil 
had his "rival," each acting as a check and incentive 
to the other. 



MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne^o thought it was not well for the child 
to be brought up on its mother's lap; it should^^ be 
inured to exercise and pain. The authority^^ of the 
teacher should be sovereign, and not be hindered by 
parents. Young bodies should be bent while supple.^^ 
It is easy to get children, but hard to train them — the 
most important difficulty of science. 

RABELAIS. 

Yet even Rabelais^^ had insisted on comparative 
mildness of discipline. 

COMENIUS. 

Comenius devotes to school discipline the xxvith 
chapter of his Great Didactic, showing his comprehen- 



86 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

sion of the practical school-room problems. Besides, 
Comenius makes the epoch-making improvement on 
the Chinese "loud schools" — he demanded from the 
very mother-school, absolute silence. ^^ 



LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

It will be seen^"^ that Locke's idea of discipline was 
a great all-inclusive idea, and by no means meant 
austerity and mortification. It was consistent with 
much self-activity and interest. Great severity, es- 
pecially in corporal punishment, is to be avoided; the 
severity and arbitrariness, with which authority was 
customarily exercised, was deprecated. Lockers would 
not think pain the greatest of evils, nor think it the 
most terrible alternative. It constitutes a great ad- 
vance towards virtue, as it was understood in Sparta. 
Gentle inuring to unshrinking suffering of light degrees 
of pain is worth while to gain firmness of mind, and 
to result in courage and resolution for the rest of life. 
Locke^^ objected to "spoiling children" and its harmful 
results.^^ There is another reason for modesty and 
submission, ^^ namely, that it fits the child for in- 
struction. 

But moral discipline was to be enforced by the au- 
thority of parent or master, the latter preferably a 
tutor, who should discreetly know the secret of con- 
trolling natural desires and instincts by thwarting them, 
and forming the habit of their control; instead of 
following them, as Rousseau advised. "Form habits," 
insists he. 

The need of such a liberal view of actual discipline 
may be better understood from a consideration of 
then contemporaneous circumstances, in the words of 
Monroe,^^ about "The very extensive use of corporal 
punismment for the slightest offense or deficencies; 



DISCIPLINE 87 

the important influence exerted by the fagging 
system, in which the younger boys served as the per- 
sonal attendants and servants of the older boys, per- 
forming all menial services; such as keeping their 
rooms, preparing their breakfasts; building fires, run- 
ning errands, etc. The custom of governing the school 
and inflicting punishment in all save the most serious 
offenses by these same "sixth form" boys; all these 
indicate how completely, in respect to "virtue and 
breeding," education in the dominant English view 
had become and continued to be a discipline." 

Locke, however, approved of the rod, as the "in- 
strument" of education, 32 which should be administered 
only judiciously. Children should have a governor 
from the very time that they first talk^^; so Locke 
makes a strong point, that children should be taught 
to hold a pen correctly^^; and obstinacy should be 
coerced. 25 

This discipline of authority is justified also episte- 
mologically: for learners must at first be believers, 
mind-faculties being improved by practice.^^ 

ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

Of discipline, Emile is guiltless The "Negative 
Education" keeps from him all instruction; his nature, 
trained in the second period, in the third manifests hi/ 
instincts. He who till now indulged to the full his 
selfish love for self-perfection and development, sud- 
denly', at adolescence, feeling the awakening of his 
pleasures and pains, and hence his conscience, in his 
first intelligent relations to his fellow-beings, becomej 
moral and religious. He becomes so by nature, by 
his emotions, and late instruction of precept and his- 
tory; by experiment in evil, by Spencer called "moral 
training by natural consequences"; but it might in the 
meanwhile soil and ruin the child. 



88 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Now experience shows that children do not sud- 
denly become altruistic anud religious; that children, 
left to grow up like weeds, do not learn high morality 
by the logic of sudden suffering; the child does not 
reason; it ignores the welfare and experience of others; 
usually the suffering of crime is the lot of the innocent 
victim, not the criminal; it is the victim who gets the 
training. This system might, indeed, develop pru- 
dence; but not morality and spirituality; and usually 
criminals, who turn from crime when their life is 
ruined, turn to the most superstitious, dogmatic forms 
of religion, that promise pardon without restitution or 
genuine penance. 

Experience, therefore, decides against the likelihood 
of Emile's career being an historical statement of 
human experience. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
PESTALOZZI. 

With Pestalozzi the only relation between teacher 
^nd pupil is based on love. Hence he was called 
"Father Pestalozzi. "^^ The children were not to be 
driven, but led^^; and as a result his school was a 
bedlam. 

FROEBEL. 

Discipline hardly appears in Froebel's school. The 
principle of love, and of development, of creative 
activity leaves no time for opposition of self to the 
social unity. Nor does the individual know the 
struggle of self-denial in the harmonious self-active 
development of his whole nature. It is possible, that, 
if the actual kindergarten teachers were consulted, 
a very different story might appear. In any case 



DISCIPLINE 89 

this system seems to have limited itself to pre-primary 
education. 



MONTESSORI. 

The teacher is not to interfere, prescribe, or restrict, 
but only to nourish and assist. Children are not taught 
in groups, but each member of the group must join 
in the exercise.^^ They must subordinate individual 
caprice to the demands of the common good,"*^ they 
must not quarrel or interfere with each other; they have 
duties to perform at stated times; otherwise each is a 
free citizen in the community."^^ All teaching must be 
limited by any strain it may entail.'*^ Prizes and 
punishments are slavery of the spirit, which do not 
lessen, but provoke deformities. They are useless in 
our modern civilization; to use them is to cause retro- 
gression thereof."*^ The "inner force" is the only 
cause of victory and progress.^"* The only external 
prize is the joy of approval; repression is evil.^^ Evil 
is self-avenged by moral degradation. The desk is 
as degrading as other prizes and punishments.'^^ Dis- 
cipline of free children must be active. ^^ Useless, 
dangerous acts must of course be suppressed or de- 
stroyed,^** and Dr. Montessori took good care to eject 
all children who were dirty, incorrigible and disre- 
spectful to her.^^ The child must learn the difference 
between good and evil, but the teacher must not lead 
to confusion of goodness with immovability, or bad- 
ness with activity.^*^ 

Seating in order comes later, as the starting place 
of collective education. ^^ Independence is an essential 
of liberty, and being served is a limitation thereof. It 
is wrong to serve children unnecessarily.^^ Education 
consists in the care and culture of human life.^^ As 
deterrents are advised isolation and special care.^* 



90 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



GERMAN EDUCATION. 

The discipline, which Kant had advised, ^^ was not 
breaking of the will; but training it to yield to natural 
obstacles. Breaking means slavery; natural opposition 
brings tractableness. Punishment should^^ not be 
given with anger: there are physical and moral; natural 
and artificial; negative and positive. 

In Germany, the discipline of a teacher is severe; he 
is under constant criticism; and may be reprimanded in 
faculty meeting, or be reported to the provincial 
school-board, and be fined, suspended temporarily, or 
be dismissed. But, however severe the laws be, never- 
theless the natural social coherence of the teacher's 
caste allows the carrying of much dead wood. 

Children are educated to obey; and strict discipline, 
even to the rod, obtains in the school-room. An 
amiable teacher is scorned as effeminate. The pupils 
expect to serve in the army, and the fact that many 
teachers are reserve-officers, introduces army discipline 
into the schools. Besides the social prestige of being a 
one-year volunteer, even at his own expense, is a 
potent incentive, and the honor of the whole family 
is so wrapt up in it, that frequent are the suicides of 
delinquents. Besides, the favor of the professor counts 
for much in passing the all-important final examina- 
tion, and this of itself produces a servile obedience. 



FRENCH EDUCATION. 

The Jansenists had attempted to replace the dis- 
ciplinary emulation of the Jesuits by the pupils' love 
in response to the affection and religious zeal of the 
teacher; but it was a practical failure. 

In France, markedly similar to the Jesuit schools, 



DISCIPLINE 91 

the chief system of discipline is emulation and rewards: 
and, indeed, markedly different from the German 
opposition to these. The marking system is carried 
to its greatest extremes; and as all marks given in the 
schools are every day transmitted to the principal, 
parents can immediately be notified if a pupil falls 
back in his work. Poor work may have to be re- 
peated; extra work may be assigned; or he may have 
to return to school Thursday or Sunday. Internes 
may even be deprived of their Thursday or Sunday 
walks. Pupils may be excluded from the room, or 
sent to the censor, with a note; there is also temporary 
or permanent exclusion from the school, usually pre- 
ceded by a warning. There is a disciplinary council 
composed of principal, five professors, surveillant, and 
two ushers, which not only inflicts punishments, but 
calls up students to congratulate them on good work. 
There is a public trimestrial roll of honor, and an 
elaborate system of annual prizes, which are so numer- 
ous as to act as a social means of interest; there are 
also many scholarships. 

The teachers themselves are subjected to a corres- 
ponding discipline of emulation and rewards. Three- 
fourths of the faculties are distinguished by the decora- 
tion of "Officer of Public Instruction," which is given 
only to "Officers of the Academy," of five years' 
standing. On the other hand, teachers may suffer 
suspension with partial or total loss of salary, re- 
moval, revocation, or permanent disbarment. These 
means relieve certainty of tenure of the danger of 
fossilization. 

The abolition of physical punishment in France, con- 
trasted with its long lingering in Germany, shows the 
influence of democracy. 

No inconsiderable element of the discipline is the 
payment of fees by the parents, who thus take an 
immediate practical interest in their children's progress. 



92 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Again, the pupil is under continual surveillance, 
especially in the dormitory at night; private difficulties 
have, therefore, less opportunity to arise. This per- 
sonal influence of the teacher's continual presence, 
seems to have been originally due to the Jansenists. 
Moreover, the blue uniform of the "interne" outside 
the school is an appreciable inspiration, protection, 
and restraint. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

The early discipline of the American school was, 
without doubt, that of the rod.^^ The master was to 
be dismissed, if found too lenient^^; as well as if he 
were too severe. Emulation was, however, not 
neglected^*^ as disciplinary motive. Another system 
of discipline was fining. At Nazareth Hall there had 
been, "a farthing for talking at meals, Yz d. for 
falling on the floor; 1 d. for tearing a leaf out of a 
book; 2 d. for a lie; and 3 d. for an oath*^" — this was 
also in vogue at Phillips Andover. 

In modern times, however, all forms of disciplining 
have been practically abandoned, for political reasons. 
Physical punishment has in most places been done 
away with, although it is sometimes threatened as a 
means of last resort; in some cities it is allowed under 
severe restrictions. Keeping pupils after school hours, 
is not allowed beyond very narrow limits; and so the 
teacher, forced to pass all except a very few pupils, 
has practically no hold left but his own personality; 
which, however, cannot survive if ground down by an 
oppressive system above him. 



1 Painter, 13. 2 MacEvoy, 6. « Proverbs, 13. 24, 23.13, 14; 

3 Painter, 18. 4 Compayre, 6 ; 19.18. 9 MacEvoy, 22. lo Com- 

Painter, 18. 5 MacEvoy, 16. payre, 10. n Painter, 29. 

6 Painter, 25. "^ MacEvoy, 16. ^ 2 Compayre, 10. 1 3 Monroe, 



DISCIPLINE 



93 



78. i4Compayre, 29. isjb., 
33. 16 Monroe, 375. 17 ib., 
377. iSMacEvoy, 124. 19 Mon- 
roe, 434. 20 Montaigne, Edu- 
cation, 179. 21 lb., 180. 22 lb., 
181. 23 lb., 200. 24 MacEvoy, 
136. 25 Monroe, 411. 26 Great 
Didactic, 28. 27 !„ the chapter 
on Pedagogy. 28 Monroe, 517. 

29 Theory of Education, 35, 36. 

30 lb., 75. 31 Monroe. 524. 

32 Theory of Education. 88. 

33 lb., 90. 34 lb., 160. 35 lb, 

167. 36 Conduct of Under- 



standing, 28. 27 Monroe, 622. 
^^ How Gertrude Educates, 
553. 39 Montessori, xxi. 40 jb., 
87. 41 lb., XXX. 42 lb., 

xxxviii. 43 lb., 21, 22 44 lb , 
24. 45 lb., 25. 46 lb., 26. 
47 Tb., 86. 48 lb., 88. 93. 
49 lb., 71. 50 lb., 93. 51 lb., 
93. 52 lb., 97. 53 lb., 106. 
54 lb., 103. 55 MacEvoy, 192. 
56 Compayre, 336. 57 Brown, 
Making of our Middle Schools, 
136. 5 8 lb., 135. 59 lb., 139. 
60 lb., 265. 



94 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Method. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

Primitive education is peculiarly important and in- 
teresting in that is reveals basic principles without 
complicated superstructure. The first definite educa- 
tional process is the "initiation" into the ways of 
society through the acquisition of its cultural posses- 
sions. It sought to create receptivity by demanding 
obedience or enforcing it, and was often prepared for 
in silence and solitude. A promise of secrecy and 
faithfulness often preceded the instruction or revela- 
tion, and was often followed by festivities or reception 
into public fellowship. So practical is this form of 
education that it has survived to our own days, when 
it has become entirely voluntary. 

PREHISTORIC EDUCATION. 

The practical education of primitive people is gained 
1, through direct training in the family group, 2, 
through the primitive division of labor, and 3, in the 
rudimentary beginnings of the class or caste system. 

Their theoretical training and the attempts at inter- 
pretation of experience are given through the shamans, 
exorcists or medicine men, and later through the priest- 
hood. 



METHOD 95 

The method is that of initiation, either indirect, or 
direct, as seen in the highest stage in an apprenticeship 
caste system. 

Transition to the early stages of civilization is 
marked by a formation of, 1, a teaching class; 2, of a 
traditional subject-matter for study, usually religious 
in character; and, 3, the elaboration of a formal 
method. 

This Primitive education is really too ancient to be 
of any importance other than illustrative of the un- 
conscious, irrepressible tendency to education of 
human nature. Among the animals a proportionately 
large amount is seen, for instance, among the birds, 
who give their young training in flying both individ- 
ually, and in or by the flock. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

The Chinese examination-system conspicuously pro- 
claimed its indifference to method, basing all on 
efficiency. The result was that their methods of 
memorizing have remained as rudimentary as ever. 
They have procedures so ancient as to be instinctive, 
based on imitation, and processes based on habitual 
traits; but nothing intelligent enough to deserve the 
word "method," which is based on individuality. All 
the learning is done by rote^ ; yet while it begins by 
merely fluent pronunciation of the characters, it pro- 
ceeds to teach the meaning, and impressing the moral 
lessons of the book. 

On the whole, says Dittes,^ Chinese method consists, 
not in developing, but in communicating. 

Probably the most distinctively Chinese method of 
learning is by asking questions; of moral instruction, 
by proverbs or apothegms — maxims of morality. 

Stages of learning^ are: memorizing, translation and 
essay-composition. These of course take place only 



96 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

by individual recitation in a "loud school"; while the 
object of learning remained rapid repetition. Tracing 
was used in primary writing-study. 

Among the Hindus learning was also by rote.* 

The Persian method of physical training evidently 
led to a decided dualism of friends and enemies, and 
a conception of the average person being put on pro- 
bation. 

Hindu methods are simple and various. However, 
it is said, that teachers are aided not only by^ regular 
assistants, but also by the more mature pupils. This 
was the origin of Bell's monitorial mutual system.^ 
The lessons are learned aloud by the whole body of 
pupils at once. A. D. Rowe, in his "Every-day Life in 
India," states that "an hour before closing the school 
the pupils are all made to stand up in a line, and with 
their hands applied to their hearts, they repeat the 
multiplication-table, the alphabet, and the sacred 
verses, at the end of each of which their hands are 
raised to their foreheads, and their bodies bowed in 
reverence to the god in whose honor it was said. The 
master then instructs them in a long and tedious cata- 
logue of frivolous duties to be discharged in their 
houses; to which they all assent with a loud 'Yes, yes.' 
After this they prostrate themselves before the teacher, 
and are dismissed to their respective homes." 

Religious exercises were held thrice daily. '^ First, ex- 
ercises are written in sand with a stick; next on palm- 
leaves with an iron style; and last on the dry leaves 
of the plane-tree with ink.^ 

The Persian method of teaching seems to have been 
that of object-lessons; Cyrus at twelve years of age, 
relates to his mother an experience of being beaten 
for having given an erring decision in a trial judgment, 
held to develop the sense of justice. 

To the Egyptians are really due concrete methods 
in arithmetic and writing;, ^ approved of b^ Plato. 



METHOD 91 

In the Hebrew*^ we have a fairly good description 
of teaching methods, including imitation (phylacteries, 
or, writing on slips, bound on wrist or forehead, and 
inscriptions on door-posts of house and gate) ; and 
memorization ("lay up" the words in "heart and 
soul"), as well as in self-activity (speaking of them as 
"sitting" in the house; "walking" out of doors, "lying 
down" and "rising up"). 

The later Hebrew methods of teaching consisted 
first of memorizing of teachings, and then of questions 
to and answers of the Rabbis, somewhat on the order 
of the Chinese classics; however, such advanced liberals 
as Hillel insisted on the pupils' understanding what 
they learned, the explanation being repeated four hun- 
dred times, if necessary^ ^; the teacher to be mild, 
patient, and unselfish. 

At best. Oriental teaching methods are fragmentary, 
and, on the whole, consists chiefly of memorizing of 
the Scriptures. 

Among the Mahometans, memorization still holds 
sway. However, during the early Middle Ages 
Mahometan scholars went as far as experimentation 
and research. The fall of the Moors in Spain ended 
this, and so the Mahometan mind was thrown back on 
interpretation, which, however, assumed an alluring 
mystical form in Persia, at the hands of the Sufis. 

Oriental education had therefore developed the 
great elements of modern schools: China, a state ex- 
amination system; India, the monitorial system; Persia, 
state education and physical training; the Hebrews, the 
biographical method; the Phoenicians, manual train- 
ing and the alphabet; Egypt, geometry and the inven- 
tion of paper; the Mahometans, much of modern 
mathematics and chemistry, a heritage more glorious 
than the use to which it was put in mediaeval times. 



,98 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

GREEK EDUCATION. 

Greek education began in a severe dogmatic method, 
that of Pythagoras, whose authority enforced the 
maxim, "ipse dixit," "he himself said it." 

This was broken up by the Socratic method, which 
may be summed up under the two conceptions of 
"irony" and "maieutics." Irony consisted in drawing 
out your opponent to confuse himself; maieutics is the 
start of self-activity, the help by which a mind gives 
birth to new opinions, ideas, and ideals. 

Plato sums up^^ j^oth these processes as "continual 
discourse with oneself." Whole thoughts are to be 
reached by the method of dialectics, for this is the 
basis of the mind's forming conceptions through the 
discrimination of qualities and attributes. This vision 
of eternal truth was, to Plato, the function of a special, 
or sixth sense, a "sense for ideas." 

Neither of these philosophers, however, did more 
than admit into the realm of speculation the national 
passion for conversation, which, at banquets, theatres 
and law-courts was the recognized method of tertiary 
instruction. Aristotle carried this one step further by 
even teaching while walking around; and this was so 
noticeable a feature of his work that his students were 
called peripatetics. His order for education was, 1, 
physical; 2, moral, and 3, scientific. In moral educa- 
tion correct habits were to precede theoretic teaching; 
still Aristotle was the first to write a systematic work 
on the subject. 

Monroe thus discriminates between Plato and 
Aristotle: 

Plato had an ideal scheme; Aristotle taught prin- 
ciples for attaining it. 

Plato desired" the possession of ideas in an indi- 
vidual; Aristotle taught that ideas have concrete value 
for the race. 



METHOD 99 

Plato exalted the intellect; Aristotle exalted the will. 
He united intellect and will; knowledge passed into 
action, resulting in happiness. 

Plato's method was philosophic or introspective. 
Aristotle's method was objective and scientific. 

Plato sought truth for formal value. Aristotle 
sought truth in experience of the race, and developed 
an inductive process. He applied it both objectively 
and subjectively, while the Socratic method used only 
the latter. He used both inductive and deductive 
methods of procedure. 



ROMAN EDUCATION. 

The earliest Roman schools seem to have been 
extant during the early Roman period, and have been 
called ludi, or sports, and were in some private home 
or temple porch. From one of these was Virginia 
seized; it must have been elementary, and have formed 
some. sort of supplementary instruction. Soon arose 
the regular elementary schools of the literatore«, or 
"grammatists." There Livius Andronicus (284-204 
B.C.) translated the Odyssey into Latin. SpuriuS 
Caurilius (260 B.C.) is by Plutarch said to have been 
the first to open a typical school at Rome — probably 
the first grammar school. Suetonius mentions Crates 
of Mallos, a Greek ambassador to Rome (157 B.C.) 
as the first Greek teacher. The rhetorical continua- 
tion or finishing schools (92 B.C.) then arose. During 
the third or imperial period these schools became es- 
tablished as parts of a general system of education. 
Seneca would have had all schools form a pure and 
elevating environment. 

It does not, however, appear that there was any 
grading in the school; the work was either individual, 
or common, but not distinguished into grades, nor 



400 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

had any definite times of graduation; each pupil 
stayed as long as he needed or could afford to, and 
then left. 

MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

It has already been pointed out that the Christian 
method of the sermon is only an adaptation of the 
Greek philosophical disquisition. The catechetical 
method, however, was a newer development founded 
on Greek formulation of Semitic oracular and para- 
bolic utterances. In later years it has been adapted to 
scientific college examination preparation as the 
"quiz" method. 

Christianity had needed a method of dealing with its 
intellectual Greco-Roman foes. With its establish- 
ment, began a period (325-1300 A.D.), a whole mil- 
lenium almost, when self-satisfaction took place of 
any earlier culture, and Christian institutions stood for, 
and were accepted as the final revelations of truth. 
The world might no doubt have so continued in- 
definitely had not this security engendered over-con- 
fidence; and when the failure of the crusades both 
destroyed chivalry and let in the gates to Saracen 
learning and "heresy," Christianity found itself forced 
to make a readjustment, which indeed was successful, 
and postponed the day of the awakening of human 
reason for two more centuries, till the Renaissance and 
its more sinister sequel, the Reformation. 

This readjustment was two-fold: practical, and in- 
tellectual. The practical consisted of a three-fold 
social effort: the Italian Franciscans, to missionarize 
among the common folk; the Dominicans, to reach the 
more educated; and the Inquisition, to stamp out 
heresy root and branch wherever possible. The Fran- 
ciscans represented cajolery, and corresponded to imi- 
tation, or primary education; the Dominicans repre- 



METHOD 101 

sented argument, and corresponded to the habitual 
element of secondary education; the Inquisition repre- 
sented the effective, executive finishing methods of 
tertiary education. 

So much for the readjustment of the Church; but 
the intellectual people found themselves under the 
necessity of fusing their religion with their philosophy; 
they felt the need of supporting faith by reason; of 
developing a logical system, and of giving ready access 
to these results. This was done by Scholasticism, or 
logical analysis. Two methods were used: the "tree" 
or "branching" method of Thomas Aquinas, and the 
"chain" method of Abelard; they used the methods of 
Aristotelian formal, final, material or efficient causes, 
or the literal, allegorical, mystic and moral meanings. 

This developed the famous controversy between the 
Nominalists and Realists. Nominalism was Aristotel- 
ian; ideas are only names, reality inhering in the ob- 
ject. Realism was Platonic; ideas were the realities, 
of which objects were only copies. William of Cham- 
peaux and Abelard, and Aristotle really, took a middle 
position; but that was not the day for mediation; and 
Platonism fell under the ban of heresy. An idea of 
the good reason for a divergence between Aristotel- 
ianism and the Real Aristotle is gained from Renan's 
description of Averroes's Aristotelian versian: "a Latin 
translation, of a Hebraic translation of the commentary 
on an Arabic translation of a Syrian translation of a 
Greek text of Aristotle." 

The debt of modernism to scholasticism, besides the 
numberless words of method it produced, such as 
"syllogism," "analysis," "synthesis"; is best under- 
stood by remembering that it was the last great doctor, 
the "invincible" William of Occam who supplied 
Locke, Pestalozzi and Herbart with the statement: 
"There is nothing in the understanding that was not 
previously in the senses." 



102 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

From the standpoint of realism, scholasticism was 
the attempt to support authority by the intellect, to 
supplement faith by reason; but from the Nominalist 
standpoint it was the conflict of reason with authority, 
the attempt to broaden out religion by philosophy and 
intelligence. This was the foundation of the Renais- 
sance. 

The distinctive pedagogical method was the "dis- 
tinction" and "definition," followed by the "disputa- 
tion," a public argument. While the modern debating 
society still fulfils that office, the most picturesque 
case of it is when Luther nailed to the Wittemberg 
door the ninety-five theses he was ready to defend in 
public disputation. 

The one man who best summates the mediaeval 
period is the poet Dante. In his Commedia he 
enumerates the mediaeval universe; in his "Convito" 
he gives an exposition of the ideas, intellectual life and 
meaning of mediaeval education; not merely by re- 
peating Thomas Aquinas's encyclopedia, but by reveal- 
ing its gist in the classic four methods of interpretation. 

"In a literal sense, the Commedia is a presentation 
of the rewards and punishments, and the destiny of 
man in the hereafter^*^; allegorically it is a presenta- 
tion of the virtues and vices of the human soul as 
illustrated in concrete examples and in the details of 
the plan; morally, it has as its social, political, and 
ethical purposes, the making of worthier citizens, 
better neighbors, nobler men ; mystically, it typifies the 
struggle of the human soul to become free, its growth 
through sin to holiness, its progress from the finite to 
the divine." 

In the "Convito" he organizes mediaeval education 
by assigning each of the sciences to one of his heavens, 
thus prefiguring a universe of education and truth. 



METHOD 103 

RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

ERASMUS. 

Of works of method none would represent the Re- 
naissance better than Erasmus's "Colloquies," which 
offered Latin conversation in assimilable form. He 
also published quotations and idioms from the classics, 
which were used for several centuries. Again, he 
wrote a Latin grammar in the vernacular, affording a 
reasonable access to literature. Asham's humanistic 
method consisted in an exposition and reproduction 
of the text, deducing the rules therefrom as a way 
pleasanter than the dead deduction of grammar com- 
monly practised. (Harper's inductive text books repre- 
sent this method in our own days.) Johnson went 
so far to say that this book "contains perhaps the best 
advice that was ever given for the study of languages." 

REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

It cannot be said that the Reformers had yet any 
distinct pedagogic method; but the Jesuits had one; 
and they were the first to require of their teachers a 
definite training. 

In spite of excellent text-books, their method was 
chiefly an oral one; which brought the teacher into 
intimate contact with the boys, molding them, and 
allowing for thoroughness of results. Added to this 
were the systematic reviews, ending with "teaching" 
of the subject. ^^ 

The formal conduct of the Jesuit recitation was a 
modified lecture form, called the "prelection," in 
which were distinguished the following steps: 1, Gen- 
eral meaning of entire passage. 2, Meaning and con- 



104 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

struction of each clause. 3, Erudition: information 
historical, geographical archeological. 5, Rhetorical 
and poetical significance. 6, Drawing of moral lessons. 
This was chiefly a systematization of the Reforma- 
tion's "double translation" method adapted to the de- 
tails of the earlier Roman rhetorical method of study. 



MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 
MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne, physician, cure and man of letters, would 
not naturally have been likely to break loose from the 
use of boolcs as means of education; but even with 
him this was to be so only through the mastery of 
their contents for practical service in life^^; if he did 
not teach the object method, books with him were not 
ends, but means. 

Learning itself was good, but made trouble only 
when in unskilful hands — taught therefore with poor 
method. Indeed^^ the education of children is the 
most important difficulty of science: it is easy to get 
them, but hard to train them. It unites interest and 
discipline in "a severe sweetness."^^ 

The method of education is the efficiency of mem- 
ory habitualized into spontaneity. 

Montaigne was alive^^ to the benefit of grading boys 
in the same class, although his whole efforts are 
directed towards individual instruction; and what grad- 
ing occurs would be that of fellow actors in Latin 
plays, and friends of travel. 

Montaigne was not quite sure that is was either 
advisable or necessary to attend a school or institution, 
some of which, in his day, turned out "animals." To 
young gentlemen^ ^ every place is a study, and every 
person he meets — even bricklayers and peasant§^" — a 



METHOD lOS 

teacher. Nevertheless he sanctions the use of books, 
as Rabelais and Milton did. 2*^ 

MILTON. 

Milton, however, had a definite plan for a school. ^^ 
The house and grounds were to be spacious, and to 
contain both school and university, so as to provide 
for perfect articulation between them. 

Milton's idea of grading of his pupils was not carried 
out into detail; indeed so crowded a curriculum as his 
could not well admit of detailed application; whole 
languages, like the Italian, were left to the acquisition 
of "any odd hour." But nevertheless he had a very 
definite conception of an ephebic period of service 
of study, and hence enforced all the essentials of a 
classification of grading. 

BACON. 

If we were to inquire what Bacon meant by his 
"Solomon's house" in his New Atlantis, we might 
guess worse than consider it his ideal of a school. It 
was no more to be a formulation of knowledge, but 
a method of investigation, experiment and research, 
on the inductive plan. 

COMENIUS. 

Comenius may, in a certain sense, be considered the 
father of educational method, as an individual subject. 
Although in the study of the universe he rejected 
Bacon's inductive method in favor of a natural ana- 
logic one, in education he evidently inductively pro- 
duced his nine principles of method^^ (in his "Method 
of the Sciences") : 

1, Object teaching. 2, Practical application, and 
utility. 3, Direct, uncomplicated teaching. 4, Causal 



106 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

teaching, by origins or true nature. 5, General prin- 
ciples must precede detail. 6, Order, position and 
interconnection in teaching of any object. 7, Only 
one thing at a time, proper succession. 8, Subject to 
be exhausted before abandonment. 9, Distinctions 
clarify qualities. 

These principles applied with peculiar efficiency to 
language and scientific teaching. 

After all, Comenius was the discoverer and pro- 
mulgator of pedagogical method: and so we are not 
surprised that his Great Didactic is devoted to peda- 
gogical facility,^^ thoroughness,^* conciseness and 
rapidity.^^ There are various methods specially suited 
to different studies^^: the sciences,^'!' the arts,^^ the 
languages,29 morals,^^ and piety.^^ 

The ten principles "of Facility in Teaching and 
Learning" of Comenius^^ ^re: 1, Begin early, before 
the mind is corrupted. 2, Prepare the mind duly. 

3, Proceed from general to particular. 4, From easy 
to more difficult. 5, Not too many subjects. 
6, Progress slow. 7, Intellect forced to nothing. 
8, Everything must be taught through the medium 
of the senses. 9, Keep in view continually the use 
of everything. 10, Teach everything by use of one 
method. 

Five obstacles to education are^^: 

1, Shortness of life: hence we must prolong life all 
we can. 2, Confusing crowd of objects: hence we 
must make judicious selection. 3, Lack of opportuni- 
ties: hence we must learn to recognize and seize them. 

4, Weakness of intellect and judgment: hence we must 
be open-minded. 5, Errors are universal in the most 
conscientious work: hence we must build a good 
foundation. 

We must not faiP* to mention Comenius's great 
text books, the "Janua Linguarum^^ which dominated 
the work of the Renaissance for the class-room. It 



METHOD 107 

was composed of the Vestibulum, the Atrium, and the 
Palace, or Thesaurus. The Janua was later carried out 
objectively in "Orbis Pictus," in 1657, These repre- 
sented the organization of his planned "Pansophic" 
Latin school. ^^ First comes the Mother-School; then 
the Vernacular School. The gymnasium itself was 
divided into the following classes, with their appro- 
priate mottoes: 

1, Vestibular: Let no one enter who cannot read. 
2, Janual: Let no one enter who is ignorant of mathe- 
matics. 3, Atrial: Let no one enter who cannot speak. 
4, Philosophical: Let no one ignorant of history enter 
here. 5, Logical: Let no one who is ignorant of 
natural philosophy enter here. 6, Political: Let no 
one enter who cannot reason. 7, Theological: Let no 
one enter who is irreligious. 

The Mother-School was to teach a simple history, 
geography and metaphysics, and training in games, 
sports and manners (locality, time, and causal relation 
of events^i). The Vernacular School lasted from the 
sixth to the twelfth year, as a simpler substitute for 
the gymnasium. For these two Comenius wrote Czech 
texts that have not survived. ^^ 

Above the gymnasium was to come the university, 
followed by traveling students later gathered into a 
"College of Light" — a Baconian "Solomon's House," 
or "Academy." 

Comenius very properly wished the text-books of 
schools cleared of all pagan references'^; we have gone 
further still and cleared text-books even of the Christian 
dogmas that Comenius admitted; and we have thus 
made science and education unsectarian. 

Grading was the very essence of Comenius's work; 
it was not only inclusive, but also definitely exclusive, 
as is shown by the mottoes over the doors of the 
rooms devoted to the different years of his Latin 
school. Thus each grade could have the maximum 



108 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

of specialized efficiency. Besides his whole school 
scheme was classified into an all-embracing grading 
method. 



LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

On the whole, Locke held to object teaching, by 
things that fell within the domain of the senses,'* 
which were, by induction, to be organized into the 
most complicated forms of knowledge. 

Again, he held to, 1, selection of one object at a 
time and, 2, proceeding to the next adjoining thing.*® 
Also, 3, to approach an object gradually by what is 
known, and hence to the more obscure, 4, in regular 
order to some interesting unknown thing. Though 
such advances seem slow, their results are by far the 
swiftest. 

Locke resolutely advanced self-activity and interest, 
which demanded that the teacher lead the pupil to ask 
him that which he should teach him,^^ and should 
induce him to have his mind "in tune" at the right 
time for the right thing, by self-control. ^^ So the art 
of teaching is the skill of getting and keeping atten- 
tion, and avoiding inadvertency, forgetfulness, un- 
steadiness, and wandering of thought.^^ 

Locke would have Latin first spoken** before being 
written, the writing only later. He disapproves of 
themes which however should be done in English*^ at 
the same time as speaking and memorizing.*^ 



ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

The method of Emile's tutor is clearly defined: that 
of directing the natural self-activity of the pupil. In 
the period between twelve and fifteen years of age, 



METHOD 109 

the child's natural curiosity, outrunning his natural 
needs, is to be directed to the purpose of learning, in 
those fields only in which his instinct leads the way. 
In his earlier period "negative education" carefully 
barred out any foreign influences. This "education 
according to nature" had three meanings'*^: "The 
good is the natural; man is to be made for him- 
self and not as a citizen; and only last is he an object 
of teaching." On these three lines the tutor must work. 
But at fifteen years of age the method suddenly 
changes. Now personal example, book knowledge, 
and contact with men swiftly transforms the in- 
dividual into a peace-loving, religious philanthropist. 
It is the personal influence of the tutor that here 
counts. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION. 
PESTALOZZI. 

Pestalozzi taught that the highest attainment in 
education can be reached only by means of a finished 
art of teaching, and a most perfect psychology. ^"^ He 
1, emphasized the new psychological purpose of edur 
cation; 2, clarified it; 3, formulated a new method of 
experimentation in Stoic tradition; 4, and gave an 
entirely new spirit to the class-room. 

There is a natural order in the development^^ of 
the child's mind, and all educational activity should 
be based upon or guided by the knowledge of that 
growth. Pestalozzi is to be honored for having in- 
sisted on the necessity of this knowledge as the basis 
of instruction; it was a school-room application of 
Lamarck's theories. 

At any stage the result should be symmetrical.^'' 
Morf thus summarized Pestalozzi's methods^^: 1, Ob- 
servation or sense-perception is the basis of instruction. 



110 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

2, Language should always be linked with observation 
of an object.^2 3^ jiiq ^j^ie for learning is not time 
for judgment and criticism. 4, Begin with the easiest 
and proceed in psychologically connected order. 
5, Each point to be given sufficient time for thorough- 
ness. 6, Teaching should aim at development, not 
dogmatic exposition. 7, The teacher should respect 
the individuality of the pupil. 8, Education is not to 
impart knowledge or talent, but to develop and in- 
crease the powers of his intelligence, 9, Power must 
be linked to knowledge, and skill to learning. 10, Dis- 
cipline should be based upon, and ruled by love. 11, In- 
struction shoulcf be subordinate to the higher aim of 
education. 

It is the teacher's duty to assign tasks to warn and 
to chastise^^; one favorite Pestalozzian method was 
to "Socratize," or, catechizing for cultivation of in- 
tellect and spiritual exercise. A well arranged nomen- 
clature indelibly impressed produces progress in all 
branches.^^ 

The fact that Pestalozzian methods have been so 
variously elaborated demonstrate how fluid they 
were: indeed he advises^^ to disregard routine, classi- 
fication of subjects, to reject all that is confused and 
involved, to hold on to words when needed, and let 
means of instruction, like creation, spring out from 
human nature. 

Pestalozzi wanted to find a common origin of all 
methods and arts of instruction, and with it a form by 
which the development of our race might be decided 
through the essence of our own very nature. 

In another place^^ he advises to: 1, Classify ob- 
servations, complete the simple before the complex, 
in graduated steps of knowledge. 2, Reproduce the 
relation things bear to each other, and limit the em- 
phasis of art. 3, For yourself emphasize important 
observations by the art of proximity, opinions, con- 



METHOD m 

duct, duties, virtue. 4, Respect natural law, 5, Whose 
charm makes it seem freedom and independence. 

All teaching should be analyzed into that of sound, 
word and language. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 

FROEBEL. 

Froebel's chief work is his "Education of Man," 
and in it he expresses with great insistence the law of 
unity, or inner connectedness as the basis of education 
— the philosophy of Kant, Schelling, Hegel, and Fichte. 
It explained reality and life in the fundamental unity 
of spirit of nature and man; the absolute unity is self- 
conscious spirit — the inner connectedness. Hence, to 
Froebel, education's definition is to realize this unity, 
to develop the inter-connection, to expound this in- 
terior germ of the universal, to develop the divine 
essence till one partakes of its fulness. Every nature 
can reveal God, and that is its object. 

While this mysticism has apparently no connection 
with practical life, Froebel attempts to demonstrate it 
in the following propositions^^ from his "Education 
by development": 

1, Thereby we understand the nature of the child. 
2, The individual child is thereby recognized as the 
central point of all relations. 3, It reveals education's 
purpose, means and methods. 4, Such education is 
practical as it demands immediate accomplishment and 
application. 5, Such education is suited to our prac- 
tical age which demands realization in life of highest 
ideals of experience. 6, It adapts itself to every age 
and stage of the child's development. 7, Such education 
of unification is needed in our age of isolation, con- 
trareity and individualism. 8, It would make clear the 



112 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

highest philosophical and ethical thought. 9, It would 
check growing proletarianism, and mechanical effect 
of industrialism. 

Everywhere Froebel finds a unity between thought 
and life which must be developed by education. 

Moreover, Froebel enunciated the ancient mystical 
principles that^^: 

1, What lies in the whole, lies in its smallest part. 
2, All that is found in humanity is found in the child 
even if slumbering in him as an essential germ, and 
reveals itself in his smallest action. 

Creation proceeds therefore not by ingrafting or 
inoculating, but by development; and education is its 
realization, the method whose process is self-activity. 

HERBART. 

I. From Herbart's psychology are adduced two 
corollaries. 1, The chief characteristic of the mind is 
its power of assimilation, its appreceptive power; and 
2, education, which determines which presentation the 
mind shall receive, and also the manner in which they 
are combined into higher mental processes, is the chief 
determining force in shaping the mind and character. 

De Garmo^^ thus states the teacher's problem: 
1, Know child's knowledge and interests so as to utilize 
them. 2, Select materials of instruction for purposes 
and pupil's powers. 3, Arrange subject-matter to 
pupil's experience and future career. 4, Adapt teach- 
ing processes to secure quickest apprehension and 
longest retention. 

II. The work of education then is: 1, To furnish 
the mind with presentations or experiences. 2, On 
the basis of these presentations to "complete the circle 
of thought" through ideas and motivation to action. 
Motivation is 1, desire, and 2, good will springing 
from presentations. 



METHOD 



U3 



III. Formation of character is dependent on the 
shaping of the will, and is determined by educative in- 
struction, which determines all our volition and 
shapes character, because: 1, Presentations are modi- 
fiable through the apperceptive process. 2, These 
presentations determine conduct, and hence character. 

Now the educative instruction is effected by interest, 
according to a general method for the presentation of 
any subject or portion thereof — or a recitation. 

The general method consists of a logical recognition 
of the steps through which the concept interest of the 
mind expands into many-sidedness of character: ob- 
servation, expectation, demand and action; which 
point out, connect, teach and philosophize; and which 
in matters appertaining to sympathy are observing, 
continuous, elevating, and active in the sphere of 
reality. The stages of instruction are clearness, asso- 
ciation, system and method. Ziller divided the first 
step into two: preparation and presentation. So we 
have: 



n 

<u 

a 
tin 


Ziller's 
(Elementary 
Education). 


Herbart's 

Steps pi 

Expansion. 


Function Is. 


Sympathetic 
Aspect. 


Stapes of 
Instruction. 


1 
3 
3 
4 
S 


Preparation. 
Presentation. 
Association. 
Svstem. 

Method of Ap- 
plication. 


Observation. 

.(Pestalozzi) 
Expectation. 
Demand. 
Action. 


To point out. 

To connect. 
To teach. 
To philoso- 
phize. 


Observation. 

Continuousness 

Elevation. 

Activity. 


Clearness. 

Association. 

Svstem. 

Method. 



METHOD. 



HERBART. 

Herbart's summary of his pedagogic work is^^: 
"Instruction will form the circle of thought, and edu- 
cation the character. The last is nothing without the 
first." "Virtue expresses the whole purpose of edu- 



114 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

cation"; it is "the idea of inner freedom which has 
developed into an abiding actuality in an individual" 
— an evolutionary product of cumulative proofless 
"aesthetic" judgments. The chief aim of education is 
to develop this attitude of preference for that which 
constitutes "inner freedom" into an "abiding actuality 
in the individual"; this process is called the "aesthetic 
presentation of the universe" through "experience, 
human converse, and instruction." 

Moral character is analysed into five moral relation- 
ships or ideas, each corresponding to a social one. 
1, Inner freedom — ideal society; 2, efficiency, or per- 
fection, balance, or harmony — system of culture; 

3, benevolence or good will — system of government; 

4, justice — system of law; 5, equity or retribution — 
system of rewards or wages. The work of education 
then is to form character, "which in the battle of life 
shall stand unmoved, not through the strength of its 
external action, but on the firm and enduring founda- 
dations of its moral insight and enlightened will." 

MONTESSORI. 

Applying Pestalozzi's sense-education to modern con- 
ditions, Montessori was led to specialize and apply the 
methods and apparatus of the psycho physical labora- 
tory; she devised apparatus for the purely physical 
development of the children; the social training she 
carried out by extensions of existing social activities, 
and afforded direct preparation for the school arts.^'' 
She applied the laboratory apparatus, following Bac- 
celli, Hard, Seguln, and Talamo.^^ She carefully 
noted the physical development of the child^^; simpli- 
fied school-room furnishings.^* There is a daily 
schedule,^^ emphasizing cleanliness, order, poise and 
conversation. ^'^ There are well systematized physical 
exercises®^ and apparatus of ten frames.^* For sense- 



METHOD lis 

education there is a "didactic system."^^ Each sense 
has its particular list of objects. The sense of hearing 
is also trained in a lesson of silence ^^ There is also 
"didactic material" for intellectual education'^^ teach- 
ing reading and writing««; and the deyelopnient of 
language in childhood. The biographical chart of 
Sergi69 is advised as basis of the knowledge of the 

child. u 1 • 85 

Montessori teaches how lessons should be given. 
Individual lessons must be concise, simple and objec- 
tive founded on observation, and arousing spontane- 
ous 'activity. The teacher must not insist by repeating 
the lesson, or make the child feel he has made a mis- 
take The first task of the educator is to stimulate 
life This art must accompany the scientific method. 
S6guin8« suggests three periods of the lesson: associa- 
tion of sensory perception with the name; recognition 
of the object corresponding to the name; remembering 
the name corresponding to thD object. This is pre- 
ceded normally by sense-training through auto-educa- 
tion By three years'S'^ novitiate in the Childrens 
House, the pupils are prepared for common schools 
with the sentiment on the part of the parents that 
through their own conduct and virtue they must merit 
the possession of an educated son. Montessori wrote 
a book on Pedagogical Anthropology, in which she 
classed pedagogy along with criminological and medi- 
cal anthropology, led as they are in Italy by Lombroso, 
De Giovanni and Sergi.«« Progress of the school de- 
mands fusion of modern tendencies in hygiene, ex- 
perimental psychology, and pedagogical anthropology. 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 
Germany is the land of methods; Herbart and the 
Jena schools have perfected the presentation of sub- 
jects There candidates for teaching positions, during 



116 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

their probationary period, must ever prepare outlines 
of class-direction before undertaking the actual work; 
some of these outlines are even put in printed form, 
and criticised in the conferences of the seminar. In 
modern languages, the "direct method" has been 
adopted, with necessary practical modifications. While 
scientific laboratories exist, these are however dis- 
tinctly inferior to American experimental teaching. 
There is a tendency to do away with the written ex- 
amination, in many schools; but it seems hard to break 
with tradition. 

The efficiency'^^ of German teaching is much de- 
pendent on the fact that the teacher is a trained 
specialist; that the courses are all unified, that em- 
phasis is laid on mental operations, and that the su- 
preme eiKl is always logical thinking. 

The success of the "direct" language method in 
Germany seems to be due to the very early beginning; 
and to the rigid thoroughness of the discipline which 
the teacher does not hesitate to enforce. 

Home work has been considerably limited; accord- 
ing to the Prussian "Lehrplan"; it should consist prin- 
cipally in rearranging and rewriting notes taken in 
class; memorizing material indispensable in class-work, 
and reviewing and fixing in the mind what has already 
been learned in class. 

FRENCH EDUCATION. 

The Oratorians contended for intellectual freedom, 
and advised the use of literature, history and science. 
Lamy would begin study with logic, combining it 
with mathematics; thus promoting practical compari- 
son, which, in the language field, took shape as inter- 
linear translation. 

It is indeed fitting that French schools employ the 
"direct method" in teaching languages, for ever since 



METHOD 117 

the Jansenists and "Christian Brothers," and Rollin, 
French schools have been haunted by their suggestion 
that schools should begin with the mother-tongue, and 
only through it learn the Latin. For another principle 
of the Jansenists had been that children should be 
taught only what they could understand — content, 
rather than form. This also may have been the secret 
of their attempt to teach spelling by the phonic 
method. 

The "Christian Brothers" paid much attention to 
writing, and have thus left to themselves a monument 
in the chirography of the nation. 

The Oratorians had introduced interlinears; the 
"Christian Brothers," Jansenists and Rollin had in- 
sisted on the foundation of the mother-tongue. From 
there it was only a step to Jacotot's comparative 
method of text and translation on opposite pages. 

Jacotot really was the greatest French method- 
ologist, and probably might be called the French Her- 
bart. At any rate, he made the most masterly corre- 
lation of appeal to nature, interest and self-activity, 
and' of elementary with investigative methods. 

1. Appeal to Nature: "All human beings are 
equally capable of learning"; "every one can teach; 
and, moreover, can teach what he does not know him- 
self" — by stimulating self-activity. 

2. Correlation: "All is in all" by learning, re- 
peating, and comparative verification — the three basic 
principles of the successive stages of education. 

3. Method: Something (as, e.g., Fenelon's Tele- 
maque) thoroughly mastered; correlation with this 
of other facts; which self-activity arouses interest. 

Condillac'2 thought that the child must do over 
again all that the race has done. 

Diderot^^ thought that history should be taught in 
an inverted order, beginning from recent times, and 
going backwards towards antiquity. 



H8 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Condorcet, in his scheme of a system of educa- 
tion, allows to the teachers an independent Fourth 
Estate within the body politic, but he fails to allow 
for them normal schools. But nothing is sublimer than 
his analysis of the identity of instruction and morality. 
First, politically; "Instruction alone can give the assur- 
ance that the principle of justice which the equality of 
rights ordains, shall not be in contradiction with this 
other principle, which prescribes that only those rights 
shall be accorded to men which they can exercise with- 
out danger to society." Second, psychologically 
"These vices come from the need of escaping from 
'ennui' in moments of leisure, and in escaping from it 
through sensations and not through ideas." 

It is in the subject of modern languages that, in the 
secondary schools of France, the method of teaching 
has been the most prominent. Minister Leygues, on 
November 15, 1901, issued an edict that, after a cer- 
tain date, all instruction should be given in the foreign 
language. This was, however, impossible; and the 
"direct" method was broadened out by the judicious 
admixture of the vernacular. Since then, the "direct 
method" has been on trial, and has shown both its 
favorable and unfavorable aspects and tendencies. 

The pupils, on one hand, attain fluency and self- 
confidence, by the aid of excellent material, such as 
pictures, advertisements, postal cards, and newspapers. 
Foreign pupil-correspondents are favored, and the best 
results come when each takes the trouble to correct 
the others' writing. Besides, certain advanced grad- 
uate students act as "Foreign Assistants," being ex- 
changed, for periods varying from six months to a 
year, with some foreign school. There are also mod- 
ern language clubs, subscribing to periodicals, and dis- 
cussing them. 

There are, however, '^^ certain drawbacks to this 
method. First, the lack of homogeneity in the classes. 



METHOD 119 

This is due not only to the oral nature of the instruc- 
tion, as a fundamental failure to treat modern language 
instruction as seriously as that of other curriculum 
subjects. Rigorous promotion examinations and sup- 
plementary classes for weak pupils, having been found 
doubtful expedients, it is proposed to abolish modern 
language instruction in the lower forms, or to extend 
it into the primary schools. This is a confession that 
the "direct method" cannot be applied with sufficient 
system or uniformity to a whole class. 

Second, is the strain on the teacher, about which, of 
course, the administrative classes are less concerned. 

Third, weakness on the grammatical side; it is attrib- 
uted to a misunderstanding of directions; yet where 
the test falls exclusively on ability to write and speak 
correctly, such weakness becomes more prominent 
than it otherwise would. 

Fourth, neglect of the cultural aspect in the higher 
classes of course could not be avoided in view of the 
administrative prescription'^^ that "the literary culture, 
properly speaking, will always be subordinate to the 
spoken or written use of the language, which remains 
the principal object of all its instruction." The result 
is, that the reading remains restricted; and the chief 
interest to the student is the practical. Yet, if this is 
felt as a weakness in France, with its great prominence 
of conversational values with foreigners, how much, 
greater would it be in America, where the student's 
opportunity for use of conversation will be ever so 
much more restricted. 

There has therefore been a serious change of heart 
among the general inspectors, since the December, 
1907, meeting of the Association of Modern Language 
Teachers. 

The method in the teaching of ancient lan- 
guages^^ is a survival of the Jesuit "prelection," and 
consists yet in various processes successively applied to 



120 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

the same text, characterized by a survival of Lamy's 
"word for word" interlinear (mot a mot) which is 
destined to speedy extinction both from the stand- 
points of "direct method," and of style. The tra- 
ditional vernacular and translation method still sur- 
vives; but it is supplemented by essay-writing and 
daily text-memory work which is of great help to exact 
knowledge. 

In science-teaching, the experimental methods are 
more honored by breach than by the observance; yet 
French progress in science is obvious, and due to their 
careful elementary training in nature study, and their 
distinctive genius for applied industrial science. 



AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

On the whole, American schools never have been 
noted for details of method; the American gift for 
holding to the essentials has always emphasized the 
necessary manliness. Lincoln said that Mark Hopkins 
and a log were all that was necessary to constitute a 
school. Latterly, however, a very real attempt has 
been made to adjust instruction to the needs of the 
individual student — just as Dr. Waddel^^ was cele- 
brated for his regard for individual differences among 
his pupils, attracting to him many of fine natural 
ability. This insistence on method was a natural de- 
velopment of the influence of normal schools, and the 
gradual development among the teachers of profes- 
sional dignity and spirit. 

Much imported pedagogy was superficial; much 
misunderstood and misapplied. Yet underneath it all 
was an attempt to rationalize effort and criticism. 
Again, pedagogy has been studied very thoroughly by 
college presidents; and, by the influence of the normal 
schools, it is penetrating both secondary and college 



METHOD 121 

faculties; indeed, the normal college has been de- 
veloped in order to deal more particularly with second- 
ary school problems. 

The method at first was psychological and Herbart- 
ian; then "adolescence" came to be a fad; all of which 
denoted an encouraging development of consideration 
of the child himself by adopting secondary education to 
his creeds and abilities. 

Lately the practical laboratory method of re-dis- 
covery has been universally adopted,"^^ a fine blending 
of discovery, verification, and correction. This method 
has been extended even to language and history sub- 
jects. 

Dr. Burnham^^ suggests six ways to do this. 

1, By understanding the greatness of the opportunity 
— the period of functional acquisition and readjust- 
ment, when children are open to new impressions with 
almost hypnotic susceptibility. 2, It is the best time 
for many-sided interest and self-revelation; for self- 
assertion, and increasing self-direction. 3, It is a time 
for rnuch activity, bodily and mental, which the school 
should turn into legitimate channels. 4, There are 
great individual variations at this stage of develop- 
ment; hence the schools should demand an educated 
teacher, and give him freedom. 5, The secondary 
teacher needs as much training as the elementary. 
6, The ordinary college entrance examination is too 
narrow a test of the manifoldness of adolescent char- 
acter. 

Lately the practical laboratory method of re-dis- 
covery has been universally adopted, ^^ constituted by 
a fine blending of discovery, verification and correc- 
tion. This method has been extended even to lan- 
guage subjects and history. 

It will not be out of place to notice Herbert Spencer's 
plea for scientific education. His chief significance has 
lain in pointing out the value for education of scientific 



122 



TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



material and method. For the development of the 
psychological nature of man, he advises natural 
sciences (first three elements), social (for the fourth) 
and culture subjects (for the fifth). The complete- 
ness of this living can be effected only by a little 
knowledge of each — sciences of nature, society, the 
mind, mathematics and history, excluding philology. 

Joseph Payne (1807-1876) followed in the steps of 
Mulcaster in writing pl?in, practical homely truths 
about education. 

James Hoare (of New York and California), prin- 
cipal of the Cortlandt Normal School, was, besides, a 
promoter of Pestalozzian object-lessons, a noted lec- 
turer, organizer and disciplinarian, on the order of 
Thomas Arnold. 



1 Painter, 12. 2 Histoire de 
rEducation et de I'lnstruction, 
transl. by Resolfi, 32; Com- 
payre, 13. 3 MacEvoy, 8. * lb., 
10. 5 Painter, 18. ^ Comoayre, 
6. "^ MacEvoy, 12. ^ Com- 
payre, 6. ^MacEvoy, 20. lopeu- 
teronomy, 11.18-20. l* Com- 
payre, 10. ^2 Monroe, 132. 
13 lb., 426, 427. i4 ib., 447. 

15 Montaigne, Education, 172. 

16 lb., 198. 17 lb., 175. 18 1b., 
197. 19 lb., 183. 20 Monroe, 
457. 21 Tractate, 5. 22 "Metli- 
od of the Sciences." 23 Great 
Didactic, 17. 24 lb., 18. 2.5 lb.. 
19. 26 lb., 20. 27 lb., 20 28 lb., 
21. 29 lb.. 22. 30 lb., 23. 31 lb.. 

24. 32ib., 17. 33ib., 14. 34Mon- 
roe, 489-492. 35 Great Didactic, 
30. 36 lb., 28. 37 lb.. 29. 38 lb.. 

25. 39 Monroe, 521. 40 ib., 522. 
*i Theory of Education. 7^ 74. 



4 2 Tb.. 75. 43 lb.. 167. 44 lb., 
166,168. 4 5 lb., 169. 173. 46 ib., 
175. 47 Monroe. 535. 48 lb.. 600. 
49 lb.. 613. 50 lb., 617. 51 lb., 
620. 52 How Gertrude T.C., 441, 
445. 53 lb., 551. 54 lb., ii. 58. 

5 5 lb., iii. 66. 5 6 Monroe, 627- 
628. 5 7 Montessori, XXV. 5 8 Jb., 
28-47. 5 9 lb., 73. 60ib„80. 

61 lb., 119. 62 lb., 121. 63 lb., 

147. 64 lb., 145. 65 lb., 169. 
66 lb., 212. 67 lb., 233. 68 lb., 
246. 6 9 lb., 3. etc. "^0 Russell, 
327. "71 lb.. 161. 7 2 Compayre, 
313. 73 lb., 326. 74 Farringdon, 
234. 75 lb., 225. 7 6 lb., 204. 

7 7 Brown, Making of our 
Middle Schools. 227. 7 8 Jb., 420. 
79Ib.,411. soMonroe,342. silb., 
649 . 8 2 lb., 652. 8 3 lb., 627-8. 
84 lb., 639. 85 Montessori. 107- 
118. 86 lb., 177. 87 lb.. 64. 

8 8 lb.. 55. 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF 123 



CHAPTER IX. 
The Teacher Himself. 

PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. 

When the first anthropoid baby cried, and the first. 
mother hushed him, there had emerged into the world ^ 
the first teacher. Next to her came the father, or 
father's successor, or male friend. Next came the 
shaman, exorcist, medicine man, wizard, or familiar — 
in short, the group leader, who assumed to teach work 
and worship. Later, when the clans organized into a 
tribe, there was a subordinate leader; and later yet the 
father assumed priestly functions, while the tribe's 
oldest leader became active only periodically, like the 
prophets of Israel. 

When these leaders organized and met, then 
emerged the teaching profession: well called the 
"school of the prophets"; rather, there emerged a 
curriculum, an administration and a pedagogy; or, 
what to study, a teaching class, and a body of teach- 
ings. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

In China the office of the teacher is distinguished 
from the individual. The profession is theoretically 
highly honored, while personally it is the worst re- 
munerated, being dependent on voluntary contribu- 
tions, and the most burdensome; in having no holidays. 



i 24 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

or amusement. The teacher is scorned, being recruited 
from unsuccessful candidates for the degrees, or from 
those recipients of the lower degrees who have been 
unfortunate enough to receive no office. 

The Hindu teacher was always a Brahmin, of the 
highest caste, and never was scorned, in this holding a 
better position than that of the Chinese. The Brahmin^ 
would consider it disgraceful to receive a stipulated 
remuneration, but he is nevertheless very keen about 
voluntary gifts from the pupil, which may be only 
trifles or considerable — Hindu literature mentioning 
even gifts "of the whole world"; — but, on the whole, 
the amounts are inconsiderable. He is held in high 
honor, and demands, and receives, more adulation 
than even parents. 

Among the Persians, the teachers were honored next 
to the father; and they deserved this by being models of 
virtue and knowledge. 

Among the Persians, competent soldiers who had 
retired at the age of fifty, became magi or teachers of 
the young; their astrology and alchemy, with studies 
of the Zend Avesta, lent them sacerdotal dignity and 
function. 

The magi were important,^ as both priests and 
philosophers, under whom even the king had to study 
principles of governing, and right ways to worship the 
deity; even after the close of this period, he dared 
undertake nothing important without their advice. 
Their fame spread abroad, and was known to the 
Hebrews, and attracted Pythagoras, the Greek philos- 
opher. 

In Egypt, after the parents had done their part, the 
teacher's office was assumed by the priests. These 
formed a learned hereditary nobility, so wealthy, that 
one-third of Egypt belonged to them. They formed, 
guided and ruled^ the people, by establishing civil 
regulations, performing sacred services, and imparting 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF 125 

religious instruction, to all but the outcast, who, strange 
to relate, really performed for the dead the chief re- 
ligious rites in suitably disposing of the mummy. 

In the earlier Hebrew periods, however, the father 
himself was the teacher, and was responsible for the 
religious education of his own children.^ Later, in the 
first century, the teacher was called the "true guardian 
of the city."^ The master was to be married; mature, 
liice old wine; and was to be considered more than the 
parent: "help your teacher before your father, for the 
latter has given you only the life of this world, while 
the former has secured for you the life of the world 
to come." 

Among the Mahometans, also, the teacher enjoys 
great consideration; indeed, the sultan is compelled to 
listen to the advice of the Ulema, or supreme council of 
doctors, in matters of faith. 

Everywhere, therefore, in the Oriental world, the 
teacher enjoys high consideration; in China, India and 
among the Hebrews, even above the parent; but this 
stands .in inverse ratio to the self-activity of the pupil, 
which is nowhere yet fully aroused. 



GREEK EDUCATION. 

The dawn of professionalism among teachers must 
be sought for among the Greeks. Among savage races, 
the shaman or wise man had united priestly, educative 
and medical functions. In the Oriental world the cura- 
tive office had somewhat become differentiated, leaving 
the teaching in the hands of priest or prophet, who 
indeed specialized their instructions for the perpetua- 
tion of their class. But among the Greeks there was 
no special priestly class. Priestly functions were 
elective; and the first great triumphs of secular educa- 
tion was to throw education on a class of men specially 



126 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

devoted to it. This, however, occurred only gradually: 
first, the poets; then the sophists, philosopher, wise 
man, and lover of wisdom; as well as the slave peda- 
gogue. « 

Indeed, the first legal recognition of the teaching 
profession was at Athens, where one of the laws of 
Solon (no doubt rarely carried out) forbade, on pain 
of death, intrusion into the school-room by any but 
officials, pedagogues, and the family of the school- 
master.'' 

THE PARENTS. 

There was one advantage in the absence of a clearly 
defined teaching-class; that the parents, slaves and 
friends were more acutely conscious of their unescap- 
able responsibilities. Plato^ actually represents parents 
and tutor quarrelling over the child's education from 
the earliest times of the child's self-consciousness. In 
Sparta, the mother^ was trained and educated for this 
one only purpose in view; her career was her children's 
education; her affection for them was limited to this, 
so that, in times of war, she would not hesitate to bid 
them return with their shield or upon it. In Sparta, 
education of children being carried entirely in public, 
it was everybody's duty to rebuke and instruct every 
child. 

This feeling of responsibility was much weaker 
in Athens, where the pedagogue nurse or slave became 
the chief caretaker instead of the mother. 

THE INSPIRER. 

One of the most characteristic of Greek customs, 
which with them took the place of our romantic attach- 
ments of sentiment and affection, was the relation be- 
tween "the inspirer" and the "hearer" or "favorite." 
Each was indeed legally liable for the other's behavior; 
while a competition of affection caused no misunder- 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF 127 

standing, but rather a mutual friendship among "in- 
spirers."^*^ This gave room for the "hero-worship" 
instinct, that still manifests in our days both among 
boys and girls. It is true that, in later days, it fre- 
quently led to abuses, and to forms of immorality 
peculiarly characteristic of the late days of the empire 
(as, indeed, Socrates was accused of this very charge 
of misleading youths). Nevertheless, it represented 
to the Greek the beauty of friendship, and hence oc^ 
cupied a very normal place in his life. 

THE PEDAGOGUE. 

From the time that he grew out of the care of the 
nurse, the Greek boy was in charge of a pedagogue — 
a slave or servant — who was intrusted with the moral 
oversight and general care of his charge. Too often 
one was chosen for this who from age, injury, or other 
disqualification was unfit for any other remunerative 
service in the household. It is evident that they were 
frequently ignorant and unworthy of respect by their 
charges, to whom they were but an interference in the 
pleasures of the street and of companionship.^^ 

THE SOPHIST. 

Grote and Zeller have shown that Socrates and 
Plato themselves were sophists, or "wise men." They 
were distinguished from them not so much by their 
contemporaries as by later students. They were 
specialists, frequently migatory, who offered youth 
such preparation for a career of personal aggrandize- 
ment as the times both invited and demanded. By 
their travel, these sophists were able to speak of foreign 
conditions, and to tell how to succeed both at home 
and abroad, particularly by rhetorical ability. Their 
three points of opposition to the old Greek education 
was a claim to the title of sophist, or sage; their im- 



4 28 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

parting of definite information, and their demand of 
money for instruction. Charlatans would inevit- 
ably arise among them; these became boastful, and 
their claim to be able to teach persons how to argue 
on either side of a question appeared insolent and 
sordid. Also they seemed immoral in discussing 
problems from a new point of view. Pythagoras's 
teaching that "man was the measure of all things" 
probably seemed the destruction of the ancient senti- 
ment of reverence. 

The sophists were destined (in 393-338 B.C.), 
under Isocrates, to pass into the rhetorical schools, 
which were not necessarily formal and superficial, and 
which produced a pleasing presentation, logical 
thought, and good grammar — the hall-mark of general 
culture. This may be taken as the first real universal 
education, the production of a gentlemanly personality. 

THE PHILOSOPHER. 

Socrates and Plato attempted to distinguish them- 
selves from the sophists by a conservative and lofty 
morality. Socrates minimized the importance of attain- 
ments, in contrast with the knowledge of oneself which 
produces a virtuous life; while Plato, in his "Republic," 
theorized, and planned a great reform on lines of re- 
gression to Spartan ideals. This moral element dis- 
tinguished the philosopher from the sophist; and Aris- 
totle added to this an unquenchable thirst for knowl- 
edge, which he, for the first time, organized and syn- 
thetized into sciences, and analyzed in his logic and 
metaphysics. Personal dignity therefore was the dis- 
tinguishing characteristic of the philosopher, as dif- 
ferentiated from the sophist. Their greatness is best 
understood by this — -namely, that after them the cos- 
mopolitan period of Greek education added nothing, 
and limited itself to quoting them. 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF 129 



HISTORICAL SCHOOLS. 

We must not omit to mention the chief "schools" 
that survived these philosophers. Plato's followers 
perpetuated the Academy, while Aristotle's thronged 
the Lyceum, under Theophrastus, 2,000 strong. 
Zeno's school, under the painted porch of one of the 
Athenian temples, remained known as the "Stoics"; 
and Epicurus taught in his private garden. An out- 
growth of these schools was finally the university of 
Athens, which continued until suppressed by Justinian 
in 529 A.D. 

MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION. 

The Christian ideal of the teacher was its founder 
himself, as Clement of Alexandria brings out in his 
"Pedagogue." Next was the Christian minister, who 
assumed the pedagogic function by sermons and in the 
catechumenic and catechetical schools, and the Chris- 
tian reformed ministers still continue this catechetic 
teaching. The bishops succeeded to this function by 
pastoral letters, and later the popes, by encyclicals and 
"bulls." 

In monastic times, the abbot's appointment formed 
the chief license. Finally this monoply was removed 
from them by the university's graduation, which con- 
sisted in a license to teach, if the graduate could find 
pupils. 

As in other times, there were born teachers, such as 
Abelard, who could draw thousands of pupils; and no 
doubt it was jealousy of this that animated the venom- 
ous hate of St. Bernard of Clairvaulx. 

With the passing of the university rose the new type 
of teacher, the scientist, and secondary school 
paedagog. 



136 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



RENAISSANCE PEDAGOGY. 

The Renaissance leader, Wimpfeling, in his "Guide 
to the German Youth," discusses among other prob- 
lems of school life the qualifications of a teacher.^^ 
Probably, however, no period of education has more 
depended on the greatness of the personalities of its 
teachers. Erasmus, Colet, Lilly, Wimpfeling, Sturm, 
Petrarch, Dante, Barzizza, Vittorino da Feltre, Ver- 
gerius, Aeneas Sylvius, Reuchlin, Agricola, Hegius; 
when these men were gone, the movement was at an 
end. 

REFORMATION PEDAGOGY. 

Luther^ 2 strongly emphasized the value of the 
teacher's position. 

"Where were your supply of preachers, jurists and 
physicians if the arts of grammar and rhetoric had no 
existence? These are the fountain out of which they 
all flow. I tell you, in a word, that a diligent, devoted 
school-teacher, preceptor, or any person, no matter 
what his title, who faithfully trains and teaches boys, 
can never receive an adequate reward, and no money 
is sufficient to pay the debt you owe him; so, too, the 
pagan Aristotle. Yet we treat them with contempt, 
as if they were of no account whatever, and all the 
time we profess to be Christians. For my part, if I 
were compelled to leave off preaching, and to enter 
some other vocation, I know not one office that would 
please me better than that of schoolmaster, or teacher 
of boys. For I am convinced that, next to preaching, 
this is the most useful, and greatly the best labor in 
all the world; and, in fact, I am sometimes in doubt 
which of the positions is the more honorable. For 
you cannot teach an old dog new tricks, and it is hard 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF 131 

to reform old sinners, but this is what by preaching we 
undertake to do, and our labor is often spent in vain; 
but it is easy to bend and train young trees, though 
haply in the process some may be broken. My friend, 
nowhere on earth can you find a higher virtue than is 
displayed by the stranger, who takes your children and 
gives them a faithful training — a labor which parents 
seldom perform, even for their own offspring." 

While Luther had written much about education, it 
was Melanchthon who was the "Preceptor of Ger- 
many," and who from Wittemberg as a center had at 
the time of his death affected every city in Germany. 

He must have elevated the position of a teacher, for 
his correspondence with fifty-six cities is still extant; 
and his pupils were the leaders of the day — Neander, 
Trotzendorff, and Sturm. He was a great text-book 
writer, and drew up the Visitation Articles of Saxony, 
in 1528. 

The Jesuit teacher was supported by all the prestige 
and authority of his order; which indeed, was so great 
as to inspire superstitious fear in his opponents; a 
little further we will, however, mention the ghastly 
price he paid for this. 

MONTAIGNE AND REALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

MONTAIGNE. 

Montaigne's essay on pedantry begins by a consider- 
ation of the reasons why, ever since Plutarch, a teacher 
has seemed to be despicable, worthy of contempt, 
ignorant of common life, presumptuous, and insolent. 
The fault is due to a wrong method of teaching, 
stuffing the memory at the expense of conscience and 
understanding. The classical example of a pedant is 
Hippias, mocked at by Socrates. This is all the more 
serious as^^ the whole success of education depends 
on the tutor. 



132 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Evidently such education would be possible only 
for families rich enough to engage a tutor of the 
better kind. 

MULCASTER. 

To Mulcaster, in the sixteenth century, belongs the 
credit of foreseeing the training of teachers, which was 
not to be realized till the nineteenth. Not only did he 
use arguments to enforce their education, but he held 
that universities should provide for this as for the pro- 
fessions of the law, medicine, and the ministry. ^^ 

BACON. 

On the whole, Bacon's chief significance for educa- 
tion was a theoretical application of Mulcaster's pre- 
vision: not only that teachers must be trained, but that 
education as such must be an object of study in itself, 
as the most important of social processes, the transfer 
of the intellectual possessions of the race from one 
generation to another.^® In other words, he erected 
pedagogy into a science, as Mulcaster had made of 
teaching a profession; and this was allowed for in 
Bacon's outline of "Solomon's House."^'^ 



LOCKE AND DISCIPLINARIAN PEDAGOGY. 

Locke thinks that the pupil should respect the tutor, 
who was chosen amiss if worthy of contempt; for the 
tutor is the exemplar of the pupil's imitation. ^^ .The 
children's governor should be discreet, sober, wise, 
temperate, tender, diligent; a scholar, a gentleman, and 
an artist in teaching. Such a man cannot, indeed, be 
had for an ordinary salary; his pay, indeed, should 
never even be questioned by the father. ^^ He should 
spare neither cost nor care, regarding no recommenda- 
tions, seeking the fit, who may indeed oft n be found in 
a starving condition. The teacher should begin his work 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF 133 

from the time the child can first talk,^*' and continue 
until he can turn the charge over to his mistress, a 
girl. 2^ 

ROUSSEAU AND NATURALISTIC PEDAGOGY. 

The position of Emile's tutor, from fifth to twentieth 
year, seems, on the whole, quite meaningless. From 
five to twelve he directs body-training and childhood 
games; from twelve to fifteen he keeps off outside 
influences in "negative education," and helps direct 
the child's curiosity by object-lessons; from fifteen to 
twenty, suddenly his influence becomes so important 
that it is one of the three factors (the other two being 
contact with men, and history) which shall turn the 
child from selfishness to altruism, morality, and sym- 
pathy for the poor. 

On the whole, the task is superhuman, and would 
demand a great personality whose only interest would 
be the one child's growth. Only an enslaved pedagog 
could supply the need; a free man would have to de- 
mand too high a salary. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL PEDAGOGY. 
FROEBEL. 

The teacher is no less important in the Froebelian, 
than in the Herbartian, system. All the "gifts" and 
"occupations," however skilfully they may have been 
planned, are of little value unless their enjoyment 
is everywhere based on the principle of unity, through 
the skill and sympathy of the teacher.22 

MONTESSORI. 
Montessori's teacher is called "directress"; she does 
no "teaching," but must put forth very skilful and un- 



>I34 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

tiring effort. Slie must watch, assist, inspire, suggest, 
guide, explain, correct, inhibit; she must contribute to 
the work of upbuilding a new science of pedagogy.^' 
The teacher must not only be perfect in mechanism, 
but be imbued by the spirit of self-sacrifice, and display 
the interest aroused by an expectation of revelations 
from nature^^ by long and patient observations.^^ 
The teacher must not scold, punish, nor repress. ^^ 
Seguin emphasizes her being attractive in person, voice 
and manner.2'^ She must observe her charges, so as 
to inhibit without repression. ^^ 

GERMAN EDUCATION. 

Teaching has become a profession since the Napo- 
leonic wars^^; but it had been advocated by Ratke and 
Comenius; and Francke began a "seminary," while 
Frederick the Great appointed examinations; in 1794 
all schools were subjected to state inspection. In 1779 
Frederick the Great separated church and school by 
committing philosophy to the teaching of laymen. In 
1812 were established the many "gymnasia," and 
their graduation-examination; in 1834 it was made a 
prerequisite to entrance to an university. In 1810 
examination for teacher's license was made separate 
from the religious examination. 

The necessary education consists in a gymnasial 
course, university study of three years up; the Ph.D., 
however, not being necessary; then the state examina- 
tion which tests his 1, knowledge of pedagogy and 
philosophy (psychology), logic and ethics; 2, Ger- 
man language and literature; 3, acquaintance with 
doctrines of his religion; teaching specialties, of which 
he must present four. There are three grades of 
certificate for the lower, for the middle, and for all 
classes. Of the four specialties, two are majors and 
two minors; both majors and one minor must be 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF 135 

chosen from one of the general group: language-his- 
tory, or mathematics-science. Next comes a searching 
application for examination, which goes into his 
political views, and whether he is a Jew. 

The examination is both oral and written, the latter 
being practically a treatise. A re-examination is 
granted after six months; this is his last opportunity; 
his license-rank depends on the total of his examination. 
Then comes the "Probejahr," after a ''Seminar-jahr." 
Together with the military service, this makes seven- 
teen years of preparation, during which time the can- 
didate has to be supported by his parents; and further 
to this is added a period of waiting for appointment. 

This training, however, has been found too severe, 
inasmuch as, for several years, there was a shortage 
of teachers; so that the requirements have been slightly 
lowered. However, his tenure of office is secure, and 
after ten years he is entitled to a pension. His salary 
increases gradually. There are three ranks: oberlehrer, 
professor, and director; the professor ranking with 
university professors. The teachers belong to the fifth 
Prussian state officer-class; the other two dignities to 
the fourth; some few are honored with the third. 

There is an "ordinarius" put in charge of some one 
class, whose adviser he is, and to whom the other 
teachers report; this furnishes the personal touch of 
the director with every pupil. 

As in France, the teachers are being made reserve- 
officers, so as to improve their prestige and effective- 
ness. 

Leave of absence is given only when the absentee 
pays the substitute; so that, when the meagreness of 
their incomes is considered, it is no wonder that few 
of them travel. Their pension runs from one to three- 
quarters of their salary; at any rate they are able 
decently to rear a family. 



136 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

FRENCH EDUCATION. 

The French "agrege" or teacher is the survival of 
so many competitive examinations that he is sure of 
being a refined product,^^ having a knowledge far 
wider than his immediate subject. His position is safe, 
and promotion sure, if slow; and it leads to a pension. 
While his income is small, he is enabled to live like 
most people of refined taste. He is a specialist,^^ 
although the graduate in letters teaches French, Latin 
and Greek; while the graduate in history and geog- 
raphy teaches these subjects only. Individual prefer- 
ences are subordinated to the system. Teaching is an 
honorable profession, not a trade or stepping-stone, 
and enlists a splendid lot of men. When once a man 
has become an "agr^ge" he receives a government 
salary for life, whether teaching or not; moreover, the 
mere fact that he is an "agreg6" entitles him to an 
extra salary of five hundred francs. This degree is 
practically the equivalent of a doctor's, and the can- 
didate spends his second military year as an officer. 

AMERICAN EDUCATION. 

The position of the teacher in the early colonies was 
variable and was highest in Massachusetts. We have 
Ezekiel Cheever,^^ John Lowell,^^ Wm. Tennent,** 
Jonathan Boucher,^^ and Nathan Hale.^^ 

Later, we have Benjamin Abbott at Phillips Exeter, 
1788-1872; John Adams at Phillips Andover, 1810- 
1833, celebrated by Oliver Wendell Holmes in "The 
School-boy." There he was followed by Samuel Taylor, 
1837-1871. President Timothy Dwight of Yale was 
grandson of Jonathan Edwards, and first cousin of 
Aaron Burr; he had a phenomenal memory; and later 
founded Greenfield Hill Academy. There was Moses 
Waddell at Willington, S. C, in 1804, later president 



THE TEACHER HIMSELF .137 

of the University of Georgia. Benjamin Apthorp 
Gould at tlie Boston Latin School carried it on for half 
a century. 

For the present, school teaching is not yet generally 
recognized as a profession of ranlc equal to the others. 
This is due partially to the poor preparation of the 
candidates, and to the poor and temporary nature of 
by^ appointments they can hope to achieve. However, 
for^. E. A. Committee of Fifteen^^ has suggested a ed- 
ge degree as a preliminary requirement. Then the 
nrrmation of school-systems of sufficient permanence 
lio provide a pension are doing their share to lend 
iignity to the calling; while the growth of normal col- 
leges to train secondary school teachers is of itself 
i^^urnishing a standard of exterior respectability. 

A number of modern schoolmasters has achieved 
reputation: John S. Hart of Philadelphia, ^^ Francis 
Gardner, Cyrus Knowlton of Cincinnati^^ and many 
others, such as Horace Mann. 

After all, the question of teachers is more important 
than that of studies. They should possess^*^ real 
warmth of loyalty to righteousness; second, a gracious 
bearing, with morals; third, a living intellect; fourth, |/' 
a disposition and aptitude of communication; fifth, a 
readiness to improve and co-operate with others; sixth, 
a realization that teaching is an art, and not a science. 
Last, he must be discovered as well as made. 



1 Painter. 18. 2 lb., 25. 3 lb., roe, 652. 23 Montessori. xxxvi. 

34.. 4 Deut. 11.18-20.. 5 Com- 24ib.,9. 25 ib., H. 26ib.,23. 

payre, 9. 6 Monroe, 56. 7 lb.. 81. 27 ib.. 2,7. 28 ib.. 227. 29 Rus- 

8 lb., 87. 9 lb., 82. 10 lb., 78. sell, 352. so ParrinRdon, 384. 

lilb.,84. i2Monroe.378. i3Ib., siib., 377. 3 2 Brown, Making 

414. I'* Montaigne, Education, of our Middle Schools, 110. 

174. IB Monroe, 467. 16 lb., 472. ssjb., 115. 34 ib., i;7. 35 ib., 

17 Bacon, N. A., 175. 18 Locke, 119. 36 ib.. 122. 37ib.,429. 

Th. Ed., 88. 89. i9Ib.,90,91. 38ib..430. 39Ib.,431. 40ib.,444. 
20 lb., 90. 21 lb.. 216. 22Mon- 



138 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED > 

I 
p 

CHAPTER X. >r B 

r, , . '^^ 

Conclusion. ^i 

1. INTERPRETATION OF EDUCATION. ike 

■ 31 

Having followed the more important problems of th. 
teacher down the stream of human endeavor till th 
present day, it may be of some interest to gather to^" 
gether the various aspects of education in the defini-" 
tions supplied by various educational thinkers. 

It may be of interest, however, first to review the' 
national or racial interpretations of education. Ori-^ 
ental national ideals might be: 

PASSIVE EDUCATION. 
China: Family success. 
India: Social organization. 
Phoenicia: Commercial supremacy. 

ACTIVE EDUCATION. 
Persia: Service to the state. 
Egypt: Preparation for future life. 
Israel: Rehabilitation of the nation. 

WESTERN IDEALS ARE INDIVIDUAL: 
Culture: Athens. 
Efficiency: Rome. 

Discipline: Middle Ages, humanists, Locke. 
Gentlemanliness: Montaigne, Locke. 
Knowledge: Comenius, Bacon, and others. 
Naturalness: Rousseau. 
Development: Pestalozzi, Froebel. 
Character: Herbart. 
Science: Spencer, Huxley. 
Citizenship: Sociologists. 



CONCLUSION 139 

2. DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION. 

Next in order are individual definitions of education. 

AgesIIaos: Boys ought to learn what they ought to 
do when men. 

Aristotle: Education is the achievement of happiness 
by the energizing of the soul according to virtue in a 
fortunate life. 

Ascham: Education is to produce culture and virtue, 
moral purpose and practical efficiency, to be gained by 
literature. 

Bacon: Education is a cultivation of a just and legit- 
mate familiarity between mind and things. Education 
is the highest form of social control over the young, 
and direction of them; a system for extending to all 
members of society such of the extant knowledge of 
the world as may be deemed most important. It is an 
effort to preserve the continuity and to secure the 
growth of common tradition. It is the most advanced 
phase and method of the evolutionary process. It is 
a "preparation for citizenship, adjustment to society, 
preparation for life in institutions, and acquisition of 
racial inheritances. 

Bagley: Education furnishes experiences that make 
future action more efficient. 

Baldvdn: Education teaches how to make the most 
of one's self; it is development, by the evolution of 
every human power. 

Brooks: Education promotes the perfection of the 
individual. 

Brumbaugh: Education is the effort of society to 
impress its ideals upon the thought and activity of the 
young. 

Butler: Education is the gradual adaptation of the 
individual to the five-fold inheritances of the race: 
scientific^ literary, aesthetic, institutional and religious. 



140 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Comenius: Education is the development of the 
whole man. 

Compayre: Education is the sum of the reflective 
efforts by which we aid nature in the development of 
the physical, intellectual and moral faculties of man, 
in view of his perfection, his happiness, and his social 
destination. 

Davidson: Education is conscious evolution. 

Denzel: Education is the harmonious development of 
the physical, intellectual and moral faculties. 

Dewey: Education is the process of remaking ex- 
perience, giving it a more socialized value through in- 
creased individual experience, by giving the individual 
better control over his own powers. It is the increas- 
ing participation of the individual in the social life of 
the race. The school is a form of community life in 
which the child shares the inherited resources of the 
race, and uses his own powers for social ends. It is 
a living, and not a preparation for future living. 

Emerson: Education's end is to train away all im- 
pediment, and to leave only pure pov/er. 

Fichle: Education's aim is moral culture. 

Froebel: Education is a proportionate development 
of germs implanted in our natures, so as to fulfil its 
destiny. It is a work of liberty and spontaneity. It 
is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and 
hence holy life. 

Asa Gray: Education is to learn how to observe and 
distinguish things correctly. 

Greek: Education is the attainment of culture: aes- 
thetic enjoyment, intellectual power, moral person- 
ality, political freedom, and social excellence. 

Hamilton: Education is going through a course of 
exertion in results good, and even agreeable, but im- 
mediately and in itself irksome. It is the determination 
of the pupil to self-activity. 



CONCLUSION 141 

Harris: Education lifts the individual man to the 
species, and prepares the individual for reciprocal union 
with society. 

Herbzurt: Education is the development of moral 
character by a well-balanced and many-sided interest. 

Hewitt: Education is the leading out and training of 
all the powers whose germs the child possesses at birth. 

Home: Education consists of the ways in which self- 
active mind works out its growth. It is the superior 
adjustment of a physical and mentally developed con- 
scious human being to his intellectual, emotional, and 
volitional environment. It is self-development through 
self-activity for selfhood and social service. 

Huxley: That man has had, I think a liberal educa- 
tion, who has been so trained in youth that his body 
is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and 
pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable 
of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with 
all the parts of equal strength, and in smooth working 
order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any 
kind of work, and spin the gossamers, as well as forge 
the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a 
knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of 
nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, 
no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose 
passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous 
will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has 
learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, 
to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself. 
Such an one, and no other, I conceive has had a liberal 
education; for he is, as completely as a man can be, 
in harmony with nature. 

The chief advantage to be gained by an education is 
the ability to do things when they ought to be done, 
as they ought to be done, whether you want to do 
them or not. 



142 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

James: Man is the only metaphysical animal. Edu- 
cation influences man by man, in order to lead him to 
actualize himself through his own efforts. It is the 
organization of acquired habits of action such as will 
fit the individual to his physical and social environ- 
ment. It is a course of training; and school is a place 
where the mental fibres are to be exercised, trained, 
expanded, developed and strengthened. 

Joly: Education is the sum of the efforts, whose pur- 
pose is to give to man the complete possession and 
correct use of his different faculties. 

Kant: Education is the development in man of all 
the perfection which his nature permits. Thus only 
does he become man; he is only what education makes 
of him. 

Kant: Education is nurture for infants, discipline for 
children, teaching for scholars, and culture. Through 
education man must be disciplined, cultured, made dis- 
creet, and moral. Through discipline, the unruliness 
of nature is subjected to reason; through the culture of 
information and instruction is developed ability; 
through discretion, one conducts oneself with propriety 
and refinement; through moral education one is trained 
to choose only good aims; this is education's highest 
end. 

Keith: The change in the sequence or the character 
of one's mental activities. 

Livingston: The use of education is to qualify men 
for the different employments of life, which it may 
please God to call them. 'Tis to improve their hearts 
and understandings, to infuse a public spirit and love 
of their country; to inspire them with the principles of 
honor and probity; with a fervent zeal for liberty, and 
a diffusive benevolence for mankind; and in a word, 
to make them more extensively serviceable to the 
commonwealth. 



CONCLUSION 143 

Locke: Education is the rigid discipline by which 
tormation of virtuous and gentlemanly character 
through the human mind is enabled to follow the 
g-uidance of reason to the attainment of truth- its in- 
strument IS the rod, its business language. It is attain- 
mg a sound mind in a sound body. Education is not 
an artificial procedure by which one comes into a 
possession of knowledge, but a natural process of de- 
velopment or organic growth from within, an unfold- 
ing of capacities implanted in our nature which can 
be hindered or helped by the methods in which our 
natural capacities or activities are treated. 

MacVannel: Education is the progress of self in con- 
formity with the purpose which is being worked out 
through the whole nature of things. 

Marion: Education is the sum of the intentional 
actions by means of which man attempts to raise his 
fellow-man to perfection. 

Maxwell: Education is character and social effici- 
ency. 

James Mill: Education's aim is to render the indi- 
vidual an instrument of happiness to himself, and next 
to other beings. ' 

John Stuart Mill: Education includes whatever we 
do for ourselves, and whatever is being done for us 
by others, for the express purpose of bringing us nearer 
to the perfection of our nature. 

Milton: A complete and generous education is that 
which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully and mag- 
nanimously all the offices both private and public of 
peace and war. 

Monroe: Education is the harmonization of interest 
and effort. 

Montaigne: Education is a method of severe sweet- 
ness in training body and soul. Education is to train 
not a specialist, but a man. 



144 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Mulcaster: Education is to help nature to her per- 
fection. 

Niemeyer: Education is at once the art and science 
of guiding the young and putting them in a condition, 
by the aid of instruction, through the power of emula- 
tion and good example, to attain the triple end assigned 
to man by his religious, social and national destination. 

Orcutt: Education is not the storing of knowledge, 
but the development of power. 

Page: Education is a leading forth or development. 
It is not merely instruction or memorizing, but growth 
by healthy assimilation of this wholesome aliment. It 
is inspiration, discipline and arousing to promote self- 
activity in observing, remembering, reflecting and com- 
bining. It is a calling forth of all the faculties into 
harmonious action. 

Parker: Education's end is the realization of all the 
possibilities of human growth and development in com- 
munity life. 

Payne: Education comprehends all the influences 
which operate on the human being, stimulating his 
faculties to action, forming his habits, moulding his 
character, and making him what he is. 

Pestalozzi: Education is the natural, progressive, 
systematized and harmonious development of all the 
powers of the individual. It is the organization of ac- 
quired habits of action, or tendencies of behavior. It is 
the art by which a human being becomes a man. It 
must be considered from the standpoint of the develop- 
ing mind of a child. 

Plato: A good education is that which gives to the 
body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which 
they are capable. Education is a very skilful discipline 
which, by way of amusement, leads the mind of the 
child to love that which is to make it finished. It is 
to provide citizens with employments fit for their 
nature. 



CONCLUSION 145 

Raab: Education is a full, perfect discipline of physi- 
cal, mental and moral powers. 

Roark: Right education is such a preparation of the 
individual, in physical, intellectual and moral capaci- 
ties, as will enable him to secure the highest enjoyment 
from their use, here and hereafter. 

Roman: Education is the sum of preparations for 
practical duties of life. 

Rosenkranz: Education is the preparation for life 
in institutions. It is self-estrangement and identifica- 
tion of self with the foreign ideals of moral, religious 
and intellectual method, and history of education. It 
is influencing of man by man, to lead him to actualize 
himself through his own efforts. It cannot create; it 
can only develop the hidden life. 

Rousseau: Education is the art of bringing up chil- 
dren and of forming men. 

Ruskin: Education is advancement in life. 

Salisbury: Education is the gradual unfoldment of 
all the soul's powers. 

Santayana: Education is the comprehension of the 
relation of the present to the past. 

Scott: Education is acquiring habits of firm and 
assiduous application, and gaining the art of controling, 
directing and concentrating the powers of the mind 
for earnest investigations. 

Simon: By education one mind forms another mind, 
and one heart another heart. 

Spencer: Education is the preparation for complete 
living; first, in acquisition of knowledge that is best 
adapted for the development of individual and social 
life; and secondly in the development of the power to 
use this knowledge. The activities of human life are 
direct self-preservation, indirect self-preservation, the 
rearing of children, social demands and citizenship, and 
miscellaneous activities filling the leisure part of life. 



146 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

Stein: Education is the harmonious and equable evo- 
lution of the human faculties, by a method founded 
upon the nature of the mind, for developing all the 
faculties of the soul, for stirring up and nourishing all 
the principles of life, while shunning all one-sided 
culture, and taking account of the sentiments on which 
the strength and worth of men depend. 

Sully: By social stimulus, guidance and control, edu- 
cation develops the natural powers of the child, so as 
to render him able and disposed to lead a hearty, happy, 
and morally worthy life. 

Thiry: Education's end is to develop the mental 
faculties, to communicate knowledge and to mould 
character. 

Thorndike: Education effects changes to give health 
in body and mind, information about the world of 
nature and men, worthy interests in knowledge and 
action, a multitude of habits and thought, feeling and 
behavior, and ideals of efficiency, honor, duty, love and 
service. 

Tompkins: Education is that power and versatility of 
thought and emotion which elevate life into truth and 
emotion. 

Tucker: Education is a process whereby a man learns 
to find himself, and to make sure of himself by self- 
knowledge and self-reliance. 

Uncertain: Education is an adjustment of the indi- 
vidual into a perfect scheme of thought and action in 
which he loses his individuality; and finds expression 
only through the institutionalized whole. 

Ward: Education means the universal distribution 
of extant knowledge. 

White: Education is any process or act which results 
in knowledge, or power, or skill. 

Woodrow Wilson: Education is not instruction, but 
comes by the intimate daily contact or meeting of 



CONCLUSION 147 

immature minds with minds more mature and experi- 
enced, whereby men find themselves. 

MacEvoy selects as the most significant definitions 
of education those of Butler, Dewey, Harris, Home, 
Maxwell, Monroe, Spencer, and Wilson. The follow- 
ing definition combines many of their points: 

Education is the unfolding achievement of whole- 
ness, poise, common sense, sanity, wisdom and creative- 
ness in a harmoniously happy co-operation of self- 
active individualism and intelligent socialization. Phy- 
sically it yields the cheery pleasures of health, some 
athletic prowess, and the force to achieve mental, 
moral and spiritual purposes, in the service of social 
movements. Mentally, it endows with the accumu- 
lated inheritances of the race, scientific, literary and 
esthetic, including some hobby; eliminating unregulated 
impulses, prejudice, and insularity. Morally, it trains by 
the discipline of self-control and self-denial to fruitful 
and virtuous habits, accumulating a fund of automatic 
expertries well used in an adequate and specialized 
mernber of the body politic. By conscience it develops 
a character capable of self-defense, honor, chivalry and 
hero-worship. Aesthetically, it refines, furnishes some 
expertry in judgment or creation; and invites distinctive 
niceties and delicacies. Socially, it makes one capable 
of chumship, friendship, partnership, family relations, 
loyalty, patriotism, ideals, and self-sacrifice for human- 
ity's sake. Religiously, it opens communion with the 
unseen by emotional experiences, conversion, just 
restitution, zeal, and progressiveness, looking forward 
to better conditions for the birth of the future. 

3. GENETIC CATALOGUE OF CHARACTER 
TRAITS. 

The skilful teacher will adapt the method of teaching 
the subject in hand to the traits predominating at the 



148 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

age of his pupil; remembering that the age of puberty 
begins with girls one year earlier than among boys, 
and that consequently they will, until majority, remain 
ahead of their brothers one year, if not two. Pedagog- 
ical suggestions at the right of each line are of course 
only general and tentative; but they will serve as illus- 
trations. A very valuable biographic chart (to which 
the following lists are partially indebted) is the one 
treating of Youth and Adolescence, by Edward P. St. 
John, Pilgrim Press, Boston, costing no more than 
twenty-five cents. 



KINDERGARTEN CORRELATION OF PSYCHOL- 
OGY AND EDUCATION. 

As an example of the dependence of intelligent edu- 
cation on such lists, we find in Dexter and Garlick's 
Psychology (page 194) a psychological catalogue of 
a child of kindergarten age. It posesses 1, spontaneous 
activity; 2, dislike of continued application; 3, delight 
in handling things; 4, liking for colors rather than 
form; 5, marked imitative powers; 6, marked imagina- 
tive powers; 7, some sympathy; 8, strong verbal mem- 
ory; 9, weak discriminative power; 10, weak powers of 
judgment and reasoning; 11, weak moral sense. 

From these conditions the following educational de- 
ductions are drawn: 1, this spontaneous activity must 
be diverted into educational channels; 2, lessons should 
be short; 3, the child should handle the "gifts"; 4, the 
commencement should be made with colored objects; 
5, the child should imitate the teacher; 6, the imagin- 
ation should be employed in naming forms made in 
paper-folding, etc.; 7, sympathy should be cultivated 
chiefly through pity; 8, the memory may be usefully 
employed in memorizing songs; 9, the differences pre- 
sented to the child's notice should be large. 



CONCLUSION 149 

PSYCHOLOGICAL CATALOGUES. 

Psychological education has finally won the day, in 
principle. But the trouble is that no two psychological 
authorities use the same terms, or make the same 
classifications. Further, in applying psychology to 
education, it has become evident that what is needed 
is not so much a cross-section of an adult (formal 
psychology), so to speak, as the development of the 
child and youth who is to be instructed (genetic 
psychology). We may also acknowledge that we are 
to-day only at the threshold of experimental psychol- 
ogy, and of an adequate psychology of unconscious, 
or semi-conscious states. Education, therefore, has 
as yet no solid basis on which to mould its practices, 
and it is therefore compelled to get along as well as 
possible with temporary catalogues of psychological 
elements which appear at certain ages, and to which 
the facts and methods of education must be adapted. 
As these are not always easy of access, and as they 
furnish a very suggestive basis of understanding of 
educational problems, we shall give some here. It is 
out of them that the future structure of education will 
be raised. 

1. EARLY CHILDHOOD; 3-6; KINDERGARTEN; 
6-8, PRIMARY. 

BASIC TRAITS 

3-6, Impulses Praise the ^ood ones. 

6-8, Imitation Teacher is the exemplar. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Fretfulness, sickness Examine causes. 

Restlessness, activity Short, varied lessons. 

Sense perception Object-teaching. 

Mischievousness Used for experiment. 

Timidity Kindness, and reverence. 

Unconsciousness of sex Coeducation possible. 

Playing instinct Instruction to be acted out. 



150 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Imitates parents (3-6), teachers 

(6-8) Who must be good exemplars. 

Curiosity To be used for imparting infor- 
mation. 

Imagination Use myths and fables ; but criti- 
cize. 

Vocabulary small Speak simply, explain new words. 

Literalness Be careful of hyperbolic language. 

Lacks time-sense Teach regularity. 

Likes childhood, dolls Develop care of other children. 

Likes action Stories must be alive. 

Likea nature Use for teaching and religion. 

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Selfishness Appeal to affections. 

Lack of conscience Appeal to reason. 

Frankness, faith, trust Careful sincerity. 

Unconsciousness of self Preserve for modestv. 

No sense of ownership Teach practical sharing. 

2. BOYHOOD AND GIRLHOOD; 8-13 (BOYS); 
8-12 (Girls). 

BASIC TRAITS 

Imitation Applied to desirable traits. 

Habit beginning Cultivate order. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Repulsion to sex Separate education. 

Quieting of body Longer lessons. 

Truancy Increase interest. 

Acquisitiveness, hoarding, collec- 
tions Teach through stamps, etc. 

Rivalry, emulation, fighting Guide the friendships. 

MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Memory receptive Propose valuable subjects. 

Desire for reality Give biographies, nature. 

Better time-sense Group historical events. 

Reading age Give standard novel-series. 

Hero-worship Propose the best exemplars. 

Puzzle and tricks Use for scientific progress. 

Constructiveness Manual training. 

Groups and friends Direct choice. 



CONCLUSION 151 

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Conscience awakening Appeal to conscience. 

Justice, "fair play," for self .. ..Apply it against self. 

Shyness Use for reverence. 

Disorderliness Train to, and oraise order. 

Desire for affection Parent must not lose hold. 

3. PUBERTY-AGE; 13-16 (Boys) ; 12-14>^ (Girls). 

BASIC TRAITS 

Imitation (ceasing) Influence for good. 

Habit (growing) Develop system. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Puberty, sex-consciousness Frankness, with high ideals. 

Repulsion to other sex Form good chumships. 

Growth rapid, uneven, awkward. Sympathize, without unjust 

blame or ridicule. 

MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Adventure Furnish discovery books. 

Vanity, bullying, over-dressing. .Transform to achievement. 

Crude humor Use for discipline and morality. 

Hero-worship Age for the historical novel. 

Clear self-consciousness, stub- 

borness, reticence Use for self-control. 

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Sex dangers Win and keep confidence. 

Religious conversion Confirmation. 

Chum friendships Choose good ones. 

Secret societies, gangs, cliques, 

sets, clubs Direct wisely. 

4. ADOLESCENCE, 16-19 (Boys); 14H-17>^ 
(Girls). 

BASIC TRAITS 

Habits (madeV Review them carefully. 

Specialization (growing) Assist in life-choice. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Sex-attraction Teach dancing, and etiquette. 

First love ("beaux," "sweet- 
hearts") Point out its sacredness. 



152 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Cynicism and criticalness Transpose it to self-improve- 
ment. 

Poetry-age Friendly, helpful criticism. 

"Storm and stress" age; "on 

Fool's hill" Sympathetic control. 

History-interest Insure its thoroughness and 

universality. 

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Day-dreams, castle-building. ..Keep their confidence. 
Appreciation of beauty, style. . .Wise direction. 

Conscience clear Keep it well informed. 

Choice of life-work Careful study. 

Love for ritual Careful balance. 

5. YOUTH, 19-25 (Boys); 17^-22 (Girls). 

BASIC TRAITS 

Specialization achieved Business utilization of it. 

Personalitjl begun Perfect it; respect it. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Style and fashion Limited, yet perfected. 

Serious love intentions, "engage- 
ment" Keep their confidence. 

MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Aesthetic criticism, Iiterai:ure, 

art Give opportunity at home. 

Age of doubts Sympathetic direction. 

Abstracting Analyze all schools of thought. 

Systematization Organize their attainments. 

Philosophy ,. .Write out their system. 

Social interest Apply religion to them. 

Politics adopted Direct situdy. 

Conceit Encourage merit. 

MORAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
Organization, fraternity, club, 

saloon group, societies Direct. 

Study of differing religions Sympathetic guidance. 

Deepening after first sins and 

repentance Consolation. 



CONCLUSION 153 

4. TYPES OF HISTORIC CHARACTERS. 

The teacher is brought into contact with individual 
characters, and is compelled to learn how to manage 
them. All that psychology and pedagogy have so far 
offered are only the vaguest generalities that have 
therefore been useless practically, 

Galen had taught four temperaments, sanguine, 
melancholy, choleric, phlegmatic. These were re- 
adopted by Wundt, and Hoffding would add to them 
the bright and the dark; and since then many other 
"emotive" or "volitional" types have been suggested. 
But none of this helps the teacher with individual cases. 
He needs a number of distinctive types of character 
taken from actual life. Then the teacher may classify 
his pupils according to these actual temperaments. The 
selection here made is not fortuitous, and is the result 
of long study, so that it is proposed tentatively with 
confidence that it will at least prove useful. 

We have said above, that pedagogy usually gives 
no detailed directions how to treat individual char- 
acters. This was of course impossible until psychology 
had furnished standard types of character. The teacher 
who studies those here furnished may then draw up 
rules how to treat each type of character, say, for in- 
stance, a "Jefferson" boy, or a "Washington" girl. 
Then he will be able to deal with individual difficult 
cases, and also suit the general class management to 
the type of the majority. If this work is received with 
sufficient favor, definite outlines of such "personal 
pedagogy" may be furnished. On this system we have 
at least some definite plan to work on in a hitherto 
neglected field, although to the teacher it is the most 
important. He will be the first to acknowledge that 
no two classes are alike, and that the cause of this is 
the prevailing type of character of the component indi- 
viduals. 



154 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

TRAITS OF CHARACTER-TYPES. 

1. TRAITS OF JEFFERSON TYPE. 

1, Possessing- intelligence. 2, Intuitive in discernment. 
3, Disposed to lead. 4, Feeling natural nobility. 5, Friendly. 
6, Graceful and rhythmic. 7, Loving a sunny spacious home. 

2. TRAITS OF GRANT TYPE. 

1, Enjoying sensation. 2, Feeling intensely and steadily. 
3, Determined to the death. 4, Possessing wonderful memory. 
6, Possessing planning ability. 6, Possessing guessing ability. 

3. TRAITS OF PETER THE GREAT. 

1, Possessing a dual disposition. 2, Led by curiosity. 
3, Progressing unsystematically by rule of thumb. 4, Loqua- 
cious. 5, Artistic and individual. 6, Kindly. 

4. TRAITS OF CAESAR TYPE. 

1, Home-loving. 2, Travel-loving. 3, Indefatigable, diplo- 
matic, penny-wise. 4, Changeable, tactless, pound-foolish. 
5, Brilliantly eloquent and artistic. 

5. TRAITS OF NAPOLEON TYPE. 

1, Amative. 2, Ingenious. 3, Philosophic. 4, Collectivistic. 

5, Fitfully lazy or energetic. 6, Mean, cowardly, self-justifying. 

6. TRAITS OF TAFT TYPE. 

1, Dignified and formal. 2, Critical and artistic. 3, Gener- 
ous. 4, Resilient, determined. 5, Nature-loving. 6, Dietetic. 

7. TRAITS OF NELSON TYPE. 

1, Just, honorable. 2, Reckless. 3, Melancholy. 4, Unpre- 
cise, irritable. 5, Dependent, affectionate. 6, Symbolically 
intuitive. 

8. TRAITS OF CHARLES I. TYPE. 

1, Magnetic and passionate. 2, Fond of the productive- 
ness of nature. 3, Intuitionally diplomatic. 4, Bureau- 
cratic, formal. 5, Disposed to socialization and reform. 

6, Disposed to sting. 7, Disloyal. 

9. TRAITS OF BUNYAN TYPE. 
1, Laborious, muscular. 2, Faithful. 3, Frank. 4. Scold- 
ing and combative. 5, Rash and prophetic of insight. 
10. TRAITS OF FRANKLIN TYPE. 
1, Disposed to wholesale methods. 2, Disposed to organize. 
3, Able in management. 4, Disposed to rule or ruin. 5, Sin- 
cere. 6, Religious, original and artistic. 

11. TRAITS OF LINCOLN TYPE. 
1, Of social disposition. 2, Being a good judge of character. 
3, Possessing consummate tact. 4, Brilliant. 5, Adaptable. 
6, Dependent, kindly. 7, Feeling kinship with nature. 
12. TRAITS OF WASHINGTON TYPE. 
1, Laborious. 2, Intellectual. 3, Materialistic. 4. Inde- 
pendent. 5, Chivalric. 6, Restless. 7, Devoted. 8 Religious. 



CONCLUSION 155 

1. JEFFERSON'S TRAITS. 

(Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.) 
1. Possessing Intelligence. 

He often said that if forced to choose between manage- 
ment of wealth, and poverty with education, he would choose 
the latter. At William and Mary he earned the friendship of 
the professors. When elected to the Legislature, he deter- 
mined to keep political activities clear of his own financial advantage. He 
founded the University of Virginia. 

2- Intuitive in Discernment. 

He could see no benefit in horse-racing or card-playing. 
He had the instinct of research and intuition of his clients' 
needs. He wrote the "Summary View of the Rights of 
British America," which first gave the basis of our inde- 
pendence, and drafted the Declaration of Independence. He 
foresaw the catastrophe impending over the retention of 
slavery in Virginia. He sought to end primogeniture; he introduced our 
monetary system. Love of truth was his ruling passion. He foresaw the 
coming difficulties with Hamilton. He bought from France, Louisiana. 

3. Disposed to Lead. 

Jefferson's ability for leadership manifested itself early and 
continuously. As a lawyer he was a skilful diplomatist. 
Later he became Governor of Virginia; later Ambassador to France, and 
twice President of the United States. 

4. Feeling Natural Nobility. 

No one who came in contact with him could fail to be 
impressed with his individuality of character, a certain natural nobility. 

5. Friendly. 

He made strong friendships, with Patrick Henry, Miss 
Becca Burwell, his sister Jane, and Dabnev Carr. His re- 
lations to his daughter Martha were very beautiful. He never 
condescended to disputes. After his political activities his 
family circle at Monticello was large. Harmony in the married state he 
practiced and taught. 

6. Graceful and Rhythmic. 

He was a great lover of nature. Music was one of his 
three passions, and he married a capable musician. He was 
welcomed in Parisian circles, as fitting them well. The 
Jefferson temperament was all music and sunshine; harmony and serenity 
reigned around him. 

7. Loving a Sunny Spacious Home. 

He was so impatient of close confinement at school that 
he one day knelt in prayer to expedite dismissal. Architec- 
ture was one of his three passions. He always had serenity. 
He planned, built and kept up his Monticello home, which 

was the great passion of his life, wh«re he proposod to end bis days, but 
which in the end almost ruined him. 



156 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

2. GRANTS TRAITS. 

(^Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.^ 
1. Enjoying Sensations. 
Tt is surely no reflection on Grant to face the facts that his 

native disposition was one to afford him the opportunity of the achievement 
of self-control. It shows his greatness in that he succeeded in spite of his 
enjoyment of unwise indulgences; and Lincoln saw this, when he refused 
to listen to a prohibitionist who wished him to degrade Grant when gen- 
eral. It is even possible that his end was hastened by over-indulgence of 
cigars. In his youth his parents allowed him all the natural sports of 
country-life, in which he took a rational and keen delight. 

2. Feeling Intensely and Steadily. 

As a child he was very impulsive, and followed many dif- 
ferent forms of sport. His love experience with Julia Dent was most beau- 
tiful and fervid. His devotion to his wife was steady to the last, in spite 
of all the struggles of distasteful occupations. "Wherever Grant is, things 
move," said Lincoln. He could not endure the sight of pain and was con- 
siderate to the unfortunate, especially to Lee and his army. He was 
essentially kindly, ancj closed his life-work saying, "Let us have peace." 
He delighted in compassion. He was gentle, tender and confiding. 

3. Determined to the Death. 

Although regretful at having enlisted in the Mexican war, 

his unflinching gallantry earned his promotion. He displayed the same 
inflexibility during the Civil War. When asked for armistice by Buckner, 
he answered there were no terms but unconditional surrender. When 
asked when he expected to enter Vicksburg, he said he did not know, but 
that he expected to stay there if it took him thirty years. At the Wilder- 
ness he proposed "to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." The 
Civil War was won chiefly because his will was indomitable. He was of 
iron will and nerve of steel. Lincoln appreciated his "cool persistence of 
purpose. He is not easily excited, and he has the grip of a bull-dog. When 
he once gets his teeth in, nothing can shake him off." 

4. Possessing Wonderful Memory. 

To his own surprise he passed the West Point examina- 
tion, after but very doubtful preparation at home. He rarely read a lesson 
the second time. After his trip around the world the writing of his Civil 
War experiences for the "Century" magazine, and of his journey around 
the world exhibited the wonderful treasures of his mental life. "His 
memory and imagination were picture-galleries of the world, and libraries 
of treasured thought." 

5. Possessing Planning Ability. 

Mathematics were very easy to him. He hoped to become 
assistant professor of mathematics at West Point and would have been so 
appointed, but for the Mexican war. When surrounded at Belmont he 
coolly said that his soldiers would have to cut themselves out, as they had 
cut themselves in. Lincoln acknowledged that Grant's plan for taking 
Vicksburg was the wisest. Halleck wrote like praise for the battle at 
Chattanooga. He planned the campaigns against Richmond and Atlanta. 
He planned his campaigns like chess-games, at which he was good. 

6. Possessing Guessing Ability. 

At West Point he had a presentiment he should some day 
te in the place of the reviewing officer. General Winfield Scott. At Vicks- 
burg, when the gun-boat fleet had completed their passage before the bat- 
teries, he felt relieved as though the victory was won. Hazardous as it 
was, he moved his army south of the James River, behind Richmond. After 
writing his memoirs he ventured the prophecy that the country stood on 
the threshold of an era of harmony and prosperity. His adaptation was 
not fickleness, but insight. He was the keenest, closest, broadest of ob- 
servers. He realized that the enemy were as afraid of him. as he of them. 



CONCLUSION 157 

3. PETER THE GREAT'S TRAITS. 

(Consult K. lVaUs::cwski's Biography.) 
1. Possessing a Dual Disposition. 
As a boy he enjoyed all kinds of practical grames. When 

threatened with danger he ran away from home and dignity, quite in- 
capable of taking any personal initiative. One day he was throwing bombs 
and climbing masts; next, singing in church; the next, carousing. He was 
weeping at the death bed of his mother, and in three days revelling. He 
was not a great man, but the most complete, comprehensive and diversified 
personification of a great people that had ever appeared. Yet he had sud- 
den shifts of temper; fits of gloomy depression, violence or melancholy, 
genial but wayward, restless and disturbing. The result of all this was a 
future crowded with surprises. 

2. Led by Curiosity. 

As a child, Peter was interested in all small details, really 

founded on his instinct to touch whatever was new. His was great 
curiosity. By curiosity he was attracted to an astrolabe, and to an old boat, 
though he did not understand their use. He« was ever curious and im- 
patient to learn. When visiting in Pomerania he commanded a strange 
lady to halt, so as to be able to investigate her watch. 

3. Progressing Unsystematically by "Rule of Thumb." 

As a child Peter was interested in all small details around 

him, so that he was looked on as a bourgeois, rather than a soldier. His 
progress in education was not orderly, but chaotic, by "rule of thumb." 
He was proficient in various trades, such as dentistry and turning, and 
later ship-building, which he learned in Holland. His victory at Poltava 
was ultimately the outcome of his drilling his grooms. Though appointing 
others general or admiral he preferred to remain private and captain, no 
doubt because he would thus be actually doing something. 

4. Loquacious. 

From his earliest days he was g-iven to carousing- with 

boon companions, and at the casino of the Sloboda there was no end to talk. 
Forgetting his incognito, at the table of the Duke of Mitau he surprised 
his entertainers by the unexpectedness of his remarks, and by his jokes 
on the habits, prejudices and barbarous laws of his own country. At Liban, 
in the "Weinkeller," with the sailors of the port, he drank and joked. 
As he was often beside himself, there is no question of the amount of 
irresponsible language in which he indulged. 

5. Artistic and Individual. 

As a child he displayed much curiosity, and was self-taught. 

His early experiments begun by curiosity developed into real trades, and 
his navy and war games went the length of a shipyard and a fortress, and 
even actual bloodshed. He was charmed with Dutch civilization and 
adopted the colors of the Dutch flag. He was far more interested in all 
these accomplishments than in the government of the country, which fared 
ill. His attempt on Azof was in the nature of an apprentice's "master- 
piece." Peter Mihailof's seal was to be a young carpenter surrounded by 
shipwright's tools, with the motto, "My rank is that of a scholar, and 1 
need masters." 

6. Kindly. 

He was a convivial comrade, and heavy drinker: he was 

over-democratic in taste. He was attracted by female society and early he 
married Eudoxia Lapouhin. To Ivan he showed nothing but kindness, 
and Catherine found him a passionate lover, a friend, a husband, not ab- 
solutely without reproach indeed, but trusty, devoted and deeply attachedf 
if not over-refined, nor impeccably faithful. 



158 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVEQ 

4. CAESAR'S TRAITS. 

(^Consult Fowler's Biography.) 

1. Home-Loving. 

He set a high value on his noble descent and divine 

ancestry, as well as on his family's more recent political prominence, and 
also that of his mother. For the first forty years of his life he lived 
quietly at home. Refusing, at Sulla's command, to put away his Marian 
wife Cornelia, he was deprived of his estate and exiled. After return 
from the east, for eight years, he lived retired at home. He made great 
efforts to pass an agrarian bill to give homes to veterans. When he 
acceded to absolute power he used it to reconstruct the machinery of 
government and to establish a new efficient administration. His social 
methods were equally reasonable. 

2. Travel-Loving. 

The Gallic nationality of his teacher Gnipho, may Tiave 

initiated his interest in that country. Until Sulla's death, in 81, he 
traveled in the East. Still longing for travel, in 78, he served against 
the pirates on the Cilician coast. He became quaestor in Further Spain. 
His great work in Gaul, 58-56, is known everywhere; it was not rnerely 
a work of conquest, as his Commentaries show; then he enjoyed visiting 
Britain. When in Egypt, he even planned an excursion to discover the 
source of the Nile. He returned through Syria, visiting all the kinglets. 
Then he visited again Africa and Spain. 

3. Indefatigable, Diplomatic, Penny-wise. 

His education was chiefly due to himself, and his "Com- 
mentaries" show how studious he was. He carried out his duties as 
quaestor in Further Spain with tact and industry. He made a practical 
solution for the economic troubles of Spain, and later in Italy. Every- 
where he was a wise and capable administrator. 

4. Changeable, Tactless, Pound-foolish. 

In 86, at Mytilene, he received the "civic crown" for sav- 
ing the life of a fellow-soldier. When captured by pirates he entertained 
them oratorically and when freed, captured and crucified them. On his 
own responsibility he gathered an army and beat back Mithridates' general. 
Before the statue of Alexander the Great, at Gades, he lamented his in- 
dolence and resigned suddenly. For three years, 65-63, he remained home, 
plotting and intriguing. He did not hesitate to undertake enormous debts 
to further his political career. He divorced his wife Pompeia, suddenly, 
claiming that his wife had to be above suspicion. He did not hesitate to 
give up his triumph when this stood in the way of his election as consul. 
When he achieved absolute power he insulted Laberius by commanding him 
to perform in one of his own plays. He accepted many unheard-of honors, 
even as far as deification. He accepted the dictatorship for life, though 
he refused the title of king. 

5. Brilliantly Eloquent or Artistic. 

His education was practically self-made, and he objectified 

it in writing his "Commentaries," which are still used in the class-room 
for style and information. He studied oratory near Cicero, and later with 
Molo in Rhodes. His style was pure, his diction lucid, his manner cour- 
teous. He was considered an orator second only to Cicero. In his ponti- 
ficate he reformed the calendar, and laid the basis of all exact chrono- 
logical computations. Not even during his campaigns in Gaul and Britain 
did his literary efl'orts flag. When he was established in power he organized 
liis work with scientific intelligence. 



CONCLUSION 159, 

5. NAPOLEON'S TRAITS. 

{Consult Thos. E. Watson's Biography.') 

1. Amative. 

At SIX years of age Napoleon, at a dame's school, showed 

Such fondness for one of the little girls, that he was ridiculed. Mme. de 
Brienne protected the lad at school, and hq always was grateful for it. 
At Valence he was very social, and was said to have proposed marriagct 
His many amative passages with well-known women are familiar to all. 

2. Ingenious. 
At school he was first in mathematics and stood well in 

history and geography. His maturity of thought and quick intelligence 
arrested and compelled respect. He suggested mimic war as recreation. 
He studied continuously, and he always made notes of what he read. He 
had great imagination. It is well-known how ingenious he was at Toulon, 
and during the rest of his career. Calculation, labor and energy accom- 
plished everything. 

3. Philosophic. 

He loved to meditate and ponder; and erected little her- 
mitages both at Millelli and Brienne. He was given to day-dreaming. He 
commented on all he read. He wrote a paper on the relations of Church 
and State. To the last he remained half mystic. His mind had an enor- 
mous range from details to sublimest dreams. Later he wrote novels, one 
of which was used by Moore in the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan. He 
wrote a History of Corsica. He competed for the prize for an essay at 
the Academy of Lyons. During his campaign in Egypt he had a great 
artistic reproduction of its antiquities published. He codified the laws 
of France. 

4. Collectivistic. 

From his earliest youth he was inflamed by intense passion 

for his native country, it was as pure as it was great. He associated 
intimately with the Corsican peasantry, and embraced the principles of 
the republic. At Valence he founded a political club. His natural instinct 
was to make improvements, in Paris, Venice, Milan, and Egypt. He made 
perfect roads in France, Switzerland and other countries he controlled. 

5. Fitfully Lazy or Energetic. 

He was an "imp of a child," according- to his mother. At 

school he was thoughtful and gloomy, proud and defiant. He was moody, 
even in later life. His inflexible character "was masterful, imperious, head- 
strong." He often sulked. He was egotistic. In later life this contrast 
between calm and despair became very evident. 

6. Mean, Cowardly, Self- Justifying, 

He divorced Josephine who really loved him for political 

advancement. He felt not the slightest loyalty to the King, whose estab- 
lisnment had educated him. In Corsica he had established a reputation 
for tncKiness and violence; when accused to the war office, he published 
a vioie.it self-justification, and to be reinstated he had to get even from 
opponents certificates of good behavior. A royal officer, he felt no inclina- 
tion to defend the King, a democratic agitator, he took no part in revolu- 
tioriary movements. Later he burnt the Lyons essay and bought back all 
copies of his novel. He betrayed Paoli. He presented a false certificate 
of Salicetti's at Nice. Napoleon's account of his life, given during his Elba 
imprisonment, seems to have been generally unreliable. Lies were his 
specialty. When he had made himself sure of the loyalty of his army he 
betrayed the republican authorities who had put him in command. 



160 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

TAFT'S TRAITS. 

(Consult Books by R. Patterson, G. G. Wilson, L. L. Dunn.) 

1. Dignified and Formal. 

Mr. Taft is above all an organizer, and establisher of proper 

dignity, with good feeling. He was thereby enabled to establish a settled 
form of government in the Philippines, in Panama, and in Cuba. To do 
this he had to conciliatd the natives, and to introduce a new system of 
laws, all of which he accomplished so as to earn their respect. As President 
he never allowed the dignity of his oflSce to be infringed by "riders," to 
bills sent to him for approval, in which it was sought to limit its pre- 
rogatives. He would not crawl to get public office. 

2. Critical and Artistic. 

He was above all a discriminating judge, and his continual 

appointment to such positions, as well as his success in them testifies to 
this characterization. He was judge in Ohio, Solicitor General of the 
U. S., judge in the Sixth Federal District, and he was thrice offered ap- 
pointment on the Supreme Bench. 

He is a good critic of art having had the widest opportunities to cul- 
tivate his taste. During his trip around the world, his personal charm and 
artistic appreciation made him friends wherever he went. His social 
accomplishments made him a favorite at banquets, and his style is both 
polished and artistic. He has winning ways. He remained faithful to 
this career by accepting the Kent professorship of law at Yale. 

3. Generous. 

While Governor of the Philippines he was thrice ofifered 

appointments to the Supreme Bench, which he desired, but refused in 
order to finish his service to the Filipinos. He is big of heart and sym- 
pathetic. He enforced the principle of Canadian reciprocity, with dignity 
and effect. His unaffected simplicity and kindness, his genial face, the 
magnanimity and charity of the man, combine to make him exceedingly 
likable. He was called "our beloved president." If anything he was too 
tolerant of delay, too long-suffering with insubordination, with lack of 
discipline and energy. 

4. Resilient or Determined. 

He has always exhibited strong independence and will- 
power. Wishing to follow his career of lawyer, he resigned the far better 
paying position of Revenue Collector in Ohio. While judge, he defended 
the operation of a railroad, while conciliating the employes. Having been 
put in the Presidency as a foil and locum tenens, he gave those same in- 
fluences the surprise of their lives in refusing to recognize any such 
derogatory treatment, and making a brave fight for his position. No less 
significant of his strong will is his success in dieting, by which he reduced 
himself successfully by a course of diet extending over several years. His 
resiliency is indicated by the genial and good nature with which he took 
his defeat for re-election. 

5. Nature Loving. 

His love of nature is best exemplified by his favorite garne 

of golf, which has enabled him to spend most of his time for recreation 
out-doors. His sojourns in the Philippines, in Cuba, in Panama; his 
journey around the world, and his continued travels around the United 
States have given full field to his enjoyment of nature. 

6. Dietetic. 

Mr. Taft so devoted himself to the duties of his offices, 

and their incidental social obligations, with so little opportunity for neces- 
sary exercise, that it became necessary for him to undertake intelligent 
and effective courses of dieting which successfully reduced him to a more 
normal condition. Since then he has so interested himself in this course 
of training as to be willing to appear among the directors of a society 
whose object is to promote scientific and rational dietetic practice. 



CONCLUSION 161 

7. NELSON'S TRAIT'S. 

(Consult Biography by A. T. Mahatt.) 
1. just, Honorable. 

As a child, honor led him to persevere through snow to 
school, though his brother wished to turn back. No appeal to danger or 
gain ever swayed him. He chose the West India post for honor, rather 
than Canada for prize-money. It was the "thing called honor" that 
beckoned him onward all his life. He almost lost his life on the "Fox" 
to save the drowning sailors. He had nice sense of honor, feelings of 
propriety, and love of truth. At Trafalgar he refused the command of a 
vacant frigate to Blackwood, so as not to deprive the lieutenants of the 
honor. 

2. Reckless. 

As a child, he hazarded a climb on his teacher's pear-tree, 

merely because the other boys were afraid. He became a fearless pilot. 
His character might be called indomitable single-mindedness, and persever- 
ance. He was ever cool in danger. He showed indifference to incidental 
consequences. This recklessness led to positive insubordination. He had 
disregarded the Admiral's order both early in his life, under Hughes in 
the West Indies, and under Keith at Naples. He had even expressed the 
observation that Keith had lost a fleet by obeying orders. Possibly this 
fearlessness of responsibility was due to his early semi-detached duties. 

3. Melancholy. 

In strong contrast with his determinateness was his melan- 
choly. Wellington had observed that his was a double nature, at one time 
vain and vaporous, at another sensible and profound. Gloomy forebodings 
were those under which Nelson first went to sea to Patagonia. When 
agitated, he would pout his lip. When in love, he hinted at suicide if he 
should not receive sufficient allowance to enable him to marry Miss An- 
drews. To Mrs. Moutray he wrote "Even the trees drooped;" all was 
melancholy. His whole life was one succession of enforced rests to recover 
from uremic poisonings, and unfortunate love affairs. During disfavor he 
was mortified and dejected. At Malta and later he was in great depression. 

4. Unprecise, Irritable. 

He received but a scanty education, non did he by after 

application remedy the eccentricities of style, and even of grammar which 
are apt to result froni such early neglect. His letters were unpolished, 
incorrect, disfigured by awkward expression and bad English. He was 
often irritable, his health being poor both as child and man. His manner 
of wearing his clean English dress was negligent. He was always irritable. 
Fear in him never died out, but was in action mastered by repugnance to 
disgrace. He was petulant in trifles. 

5. Dependent, Affectionate. 

His early career was shaped by Suckling-, and this later by 

Parker. He formed a lasting attachment to his captain, Locher, with whom 
he corresponded to the end. It was his inclination always to say the kind- 
est thing possible. In his whole career he was followed by Collingwood. 
He easily enlisted the love and esteem of all he approached, possessing 
great charms of manner. His dependence on womanly sympathy explains 
his difficulty with his wife, and his various successive attachments, in none 
of which did he idealize their objects. He allowed Moutray to deprive 
him of an important ship rather than wound his feelings. He did so also 
with Calder. Lady Hamilton's appreciation and admiration swayed him. 

6. Symbolically Intuitive. 

As a child he "ever saw a radiant orb suspended which 

beckoned me onward to renown." He was seized by vague premonitions 
of his end. It is said he ordered his name engraved on the coffin made 
from the mast of the Orient, as he might need it on- his return. This 
unusual foreboding is evident in his writings also. On Sept. 18, 1805, he 
wrote out in his diary the anticipation of his death; on leaving he spoke 
of the gypsy prophecy that his book of life was closed. Though he had 
never done it before he now knelt and prayed at the beg innin g Qf ^jjg 
battle, haviuK a codicil to bis will signed by Blackwood. 



162 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

8. CHARLES I.'s TRAITS. 

(Consult Samuel R. Gardiner's History.) 
1. Magnetic and Passionate. 

He was very anxious to marry the Infanta, and not con- 
tent with seeing her on state occasions, jumped over the garden wall, 
frightening her so she fainted. He was so angry at the conditions imposed 
that he resigned her. He collected a forced loan by violence. Soldiers 
were billeted on civilians. He refused to let the custom house officers to 
appear before the House of Commons. For eleven years no parliament 
met in England, and Charles carried on the government single-handed. 
Charles admired and patronized the drama, and as opposed to Prynne. 
He carried on both Scottish bishops' wars without help from parliament. 

2. Fond of the Productiveness of Nature. 

As soon as he was established he began a regime of dances, 
gaieties and pleasures of all kinds. He tried to defend on encroachments 
on forests by levying fines. He loved nature enough to have_ dramatic 
performances in the open air, such as Milton's Comus. When in trouble 
he fled to the Isle of Wight, where at Carisbrooke castle he enjoyed nature's 
surroundings. 

3. Intuitionally Diplomatic. 
He was very yielding- to others in matters of detail. He 

imposed a declaration of silence on all parties to religious discord in 1628. 
In religious matters he followed Laud, who compromised between papacy 
and protestantism. When in 1642 his blow failed against the five members, 
he fled from Whitehall. 

4. Bureaucratic, Formal. 

He was more dignified than his father, James III. He 

enforced fines on all owners of military lands who had neglected to be 
knighted. Laud advised Charles to insist on ritual, and uniformity of 
worship, even through the metro-political visitation. He reappointed Scot- 
tish bishops. He was fond of dress, and outward pomp. When captured, 
he behaved with admirable dignity, and nothing became his life so well 
as the leaving of it. 

5. Disposed to Socialization and Reform. 

He was obstinate in persisting in lines of conduct he him- 
self had chosen. He levied fines on those who had encroached on old 
boundaries of the forests. He raised ship-money, from different towns in 
England. His controversy with Parliament started with his realization of 
the necessity of national and international issues, to which the "bour- 
geoisie" were entirely indifferent. 

6. Disposed to Sting. 

He tried to impeach five members of parliament of treason, 
and himself led soldiers to take them. Five Knights had been imprisoned 
in 1627, for refusing forced loans. He refused to give up his power to 
imprison without trial. He successively called to arms, against each other, 
the Irish, Scotch and English. He decided to possess himself of a muni- 
tions magazine at Hull, which led to setting up his standard at Nottingham. 

7. Disloyal. 

Although Strafford had been his great supporter, and had 
been promised impunity, Charles signed his bill of attainder, and allowed 
him to be executed. As no one would grant him any benevolence, he took 
the advice to borrow, though he did not intend to repay, as a forced loan. 
He was willing to make any promise not to imprison civilians, but would 
not give up the right to do so. He was ready to grant parliament freedom 
of counsel, but not of control. When opposed he withdrew the Scottish 
prayerbook. Charles promised the parliament should not be dissolved with- 
out his consent. 

He called on the English to cow the Scots, and on the Scots to cow 
the English. Ireland was continually betrayed. Lunesford was appointed 
only to be diimistcd. He had planned to import French and Lorraincre. 



CONCLUSION " ^163 

9. BUNYAN'S TRAITS. 

(Consult Biography by Jas. A. Froude.) 
1. Laborious, Muscular. 

He was brought up as a poor tinker. He was bound out 
as apprentice in that trade. He continued his avocation even 
while he had become a famous preacher. Even in jail he 
made tags for boot-laces. Later he became a brazier. His 
character "Christian*' had also been a worker. 

2. Faithful. 

Poor as they were, the Bunyans prided themselves on 
their honesty and laboriousness. He was very faithful to his 
wife, and became regular and respectable. When accused 
falsely of loose living, he called heaven to witness he was 
faithful to his wife. Though warned that a warrant was out 
against him he felt he was bound to face it. He refused to 
be bailed on promise of not preaching again. He was law- 
abiding, and where he could not obey law actively, he did so 
passively. 

3. Frank. 

Bunyan confessed his sins almost more earnestly than was 
necessary, in "passionate language of self-abhorrence." ac- 
cusing himself of all manner of sins. Nevertheless he was 
neither drunk nor unchaste. He revealed his own spiritual 
career in the Pilgrim's Progress. When offered freedom in 
return for a general promise not to preach, he refused the 
evasion. 

4. Scolding and Combative. 

He was a violent, passionate boy, who swore roundly, his 
tongue was bitter. He was drawn to be a soldier; so martial 
saints deeply impressed his imagination, he was of fervid 
temperament, and a "brisk talker." He was convicted and 
jailed not because the authorities were vindictive, but be- 
cause he would not give them a chance to let him out; he 
was continuously struggling to be condemned. 

5. Rash, and Prophetic of Insight. 

His inventive faculty showed itself in childhood even by 
lying. He had fearful dreams, and dreadful visions, looking 
forward to the Day of Judgment, and to soul-temptations. 
In his book, there are many visions in the Interpreter's 
House, and in the Delectable Mountains. He started to 
preach, which led to his arrest. 



164 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

10. FRANKLIN'S TRAITS. 

(Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.) 
1. Disposed to Wholesale Methods. 
Reared a printer, he did not remain one, showing: that 

manual labor, though honorably performed, was not the limit of his career, 
which tended to wholesale, rather than to retail activities. _ Working in his 
father's shop at candle making he hated. At eighteen, working with Keimer 
the printer, he had visions of becoming a master-printer. Later he started 
the Pennsylvania Gazette." At forty-two he sold his printing-business to 
investigate electricity. In 1757 he went to England for the state, to ad- 
just relations with the royalty, and in 1765 pleaded his country's cause 
before the House of Commons, being away from home ten years. Finally 
he became Ambassador to France, and Governor of Pennsylvania. 

2. Disposed to Organize. 

At twenty-one he org-anized a study-club for mechanics, 
called the Junto, with a subscription lending library. He was always 
starting new papers, as for instance, the "Pennsylvania Gazette." Then 
he started poor Richard's Almanac, in December, 1738. His appointment 
to the deputy postmastership, opened the way to obtaining better police 
regulations, and the organization of a fire company. At thirty-seven he 
organized the Academy that was to become the University of Pennsylvania. 
He aided Whitfield's orphan-house in Georgia. He made a plan of union 
for the struggling Americans. His was the saying, "We must hang to- 
gether, or we shall hang separately." At 81 years of age he was delegate 
to the Constitutional convention, and suggested the bases of representation 
in Senate and House of Representatives. 

3. Ability in Management. 

Writing a few ballads at fifteen years of age, he went on 
the streets selling printed copies of them. He would wheel his paper-stock 
on a barrow in a street to find buyers. He was at thirty elected clerk of 
the General Assembly, a testimony to his abilities. For sixteen years 
postmaster of Philadelphia he was, with Hunter, appointed postmaster for 
the colonies, and excellent was his judgment, so conciliatory his manners, 
that he rarely made enemies, with splendid executive ability and tireless 
energy. In the continental Congress he was put on ten Committees. He 
was made Postmaster-general. Later he was sent as ambassador to France. 

4. Disposed to Rule or Ruin. 

He so hated working at his father's shop that he wanted to 

run away to sea. Then he was apprenticed to a cutler, and later, to his 
brother James as a printer. When disagreements brought him into conflict 
with this one too, he ran away from Boston, to Philadelphia. 

5. Sincere. 
Franklin's sincerity and honesty is his most prominent 
trait. When he was given the loan of two hundred and fifty dollars by 
two men to enable him to pay for the opportunity of starting in business, 
on the security of his character, Franklin repaid them, and remembered 
them kindly until his dying day. The helpful maxims of Poor Richard's 
Almanac were a testimony both to his taste and ability. His "sincerity 
and honesty" had won for him "the confidence of his country." At 84 
years old Washington wrote him a testimonial to his benevolence, patriot- 
ism, philanthropy and friendship. His chief rule was "To go straight for- 
ward in doing what appears to me to be right, leaving the consequences 
to Providence." 

6. Religious, Original and Artistic. 

From the start his mind was religious and artistic. Though 

only an apprentice, he read the best books, beginning with Bunyan's Pil- 
grim's Progress. At fifteen he wrote a few ballads, and was deterred from 
poetry as a career only by the pleading of his father. He wrote contribu- 
tions for the "Courant." At twenty-seven he began French, Spanish and 
Italian, and learned to play on the harp, guitar, violin and violoncello. 
His relations to his wife and his son Franky, were of the most sacred. He 
invented the Franklin stove. In electricity he discovered the identity of 
tlectricity and lightning. 



CONCLUSION 165 

11. LINCOLN'S TRAITS. 

(Consult E. L. Dana's Makers of America.'^ 
1. Of Social Disposition. 

Lincoln possessed a charm and power few could resist. 

He had a hearty hand clasp, and a sympathetic voice. He made friends 
quickly, and drew crowds to the store fire as easily as to his campaiRn 
speeches. His house life with Mary Todd was, to the end, one of singular 
beauty. 

2. Being a Good Judeje of Character. 

The reason why he generally won his cases as a lawyer, 
was that he took none but good ones, and could tell the honesty of the 
client, giving up a case in the middle of an argument where he saw the 
wrong. His ability to judge characters stood him in good stead in his de- 
bate with Douglas whom he forced into the position of making an answer 
which won him the senatorship, but lost him the presidency. His choice 
of a cabinet later vindicated itself, though he had to win several members. 
His choice of generals was the reason of the final success of the war. 

3. Diplomatic in Management. 

Forced into a fight with Jack Armstrong, the bully of 
New Salem, Lincoln thrashed him, but was so generous he won the liking 
of the rough gang who elected him captain of volunteers in the Black 
Hawk war in 1832. Later as pilot, and as clerk — where he won the nick- 
name "Honest Abe" — as postmaster, as deputy surveyor, as friendly 
lawyer, he won the liking of all he met. His treatment of Seward and 
Stanton, who at the beginning scorned and abused him, and were finally 
brought to respect him, is welL known. Even Douglas, whom he had op- 
posed, was making campaign speeches for Lincoln, when the latter died. 

4. Brilliant. 
Even when a child he wrote witty verses, and little poli- 
tical reflections that were published. He would make impromptu speeches, 
that drew crowds. He showed a mixture of rough with fine, commonplace 
and ideal, great strength and tenderness, fun and sadness. His fondness 
for stories and anecdotes stood him in good stead in his home, in the court- 
house, on electioneering trips, and in the White House. 

5. Adaptable. 

Lincoln, as child, helped his sister Sarah with the house- 
work. When he had no paper to write on, he used the shingles in his 
cabin. He interested himself in all the books in the neighborhood and 
attended all the trials he could. His trip to Louisiana, in 1828, opened 
to him a new world, and on a second one he determined to hit slavery 
hard, if he ever got the chance. He adapted himself easily to all occupa- 
tions, clerk, captain, postmaster, law, surveyor, official. He was always 
ready to "lend a hand." He was democratic in his ways, and ever re- 
mained sympathetic to the "boys in blue," the common soldiers. 

6. Dependent, Kindly. 

Lincoln received from his mother an early religious train- 
ing, and pious dependence on Providence. "All I am and all I hope to 
be I owe to my sainted mother." This remained with him all his life. 
When the family was ready to start for Illinois he was discovered weep- 
ing on her grave. When in grief at the death of his son Willie, he said 
to the nurse, "I remember my mother's prayers, they have clung to me 
all my life." "This is God's fight, and He will win it in good time.' He 
signed the reprieve of a soldier condemned to death for sleeping on post, 
on the grounds of the boy's habits on the farm, in this remembering his 
own experiences. "With malice towards none and charity for all." 

7. Feeling Kinship with Nature. 
Lincoln's hard work on the farm early acquainted him with 
nature, and he took every holiday enjoying it further. He could not bear 
to see suffering, once only did he kill a wild turkey while hunting. While 
a lawyer he stopped on the road to alleviate the suffering of two young 
birds, and once of a pig; while President he helped a girl save some birds. 



166 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 

12. WASHINGTON'S TRAITS. 

(Consult Bolton's Famous American Statesmen.) 
1. Laborious. 
During his years of domesticity at Mount Vernon he rose 

before dawn, ancf was most painstaking in his work. His return from the 
Ohio Valley, and other early military efficiency testifies to his activity in 
details. He drilled the Cambridge militia for months, and in one night 
had the Dorchester fortress built. At Valley Forge he likewise kept the 
Continental army together, and drilled it. 

2. IntellectuaL 

He learned the rudiments of education from a sexton, so 

desirous of them was he. Patrick Henry said of Washington that at the 
Continental Congress he was supreme in solid information and sound judg- 
ment. During his second term he resisted those partisans of France who 
would not have hesitated to plunge the country in a new war with Eng- 
land, knowing it might be fatal. Jefferson praised his integrity. 

3. Materialistic. 

In all his surveying work his records were neat and exact, 

as indeed was all his correspondence so long as he lived. He never allowed 
his religion, devotion, chivalry, or even intellectuality to divert his view 
from a sane appreciation of the material basis on which all events are 
founded. He was very solicitous for his soldiers' material welfare. 

4. Independent. 

While a boy he was always a leader among the parades 

and shamfights he organized. At nineteen he was made maior in the Vir- 
ginia militia. He was compelled to undertake command of the Ohio ex- 
pedition, and was appointedl commander-in-chief of the Virginia militarv. 
He was one of the Virginia delegates to the Continental Congress. He 
became Commander-in-chief of the Army and President. 

5. Chivalric. 

At thirteen he wrote "Rules of courtesy and decent be- 
havior in company and conversation." He spared the life of the traitor 
Indian who shot at him. He declined command of the Ohio expedition 
in favor of Fry. His mother he always addressed as "honored madam." 
When elected member of the Virginia Assembly he was so modest he could 
not speak. On the field of Isattle he had no leniency toward cowards. 

6. Restless, 

As a child he was fond of military things, organizing 

sham-fiights and parades. At fourteen he wanted to enter the navy and 
see the world. Next he undertook land surveying. He was an early riser, 
before dawn. In all his military undertakings his success was largely 
due to his quick action, and restless forging ahead; as at the unexpected 
Trenton victory. 

7. Devoted. 

He was devoted to his mother, to her attributing all his 

success in life. At fifteen he had given his heart to a girl. At the 
Pamunkey he met and fell in love with his future wife, forgetting all his 
engagements for the day, and wrote her a beautiful engagement letter be- 
fore going in action. For seventeen years he lived at Mount Vernon in 
happy domesticity. After success at Yorktown he hastened to hand in his 
resignation, and return home. He refused the suggestions of those who 
would have preferred to see him king than president. At the end of his 
first term he wished to return home; and a third term he refused. 

8. Religious. 
He acknowledged the protection of Providence at Brad- 
dock's defeat. Through life he loved and believed the Christian religion. 
"Agnosticism had no charms for him." He wrote an order to the New York 
army repressing swearing. At Valley Forge he persisted in his cause, 
actively relying on the help of Providence. After Yorktown he ordered 
all divisions of the army to hold divine services. 



CONCLUSION 167 



5. CALENDAR OF FAMOUS MEN, FOR OBJECT 
TEACHING. 

If imitation is the basis of education, then the teacher 
needs a biographical calendar of famous representative 
men, one for each day of the year, and arranged by 
subjects so as to make intelligent selection possible. 
Until now the only available one has been that of 
Auguste Comte, the leader of the Positivist school of 
philosophy, which Frederick Harrison has developed 
in his "Calendar of Great Men." Unfortunately, this 
list is obsolete, for many reasons. To begin with, it 
ignores all the most modern era. Second, it devotes 
months to topics of little general interest, omitting, or 
giving scant room to the modern aspects of life. 
Third, it belongs still to the age that began study with 
Greece and Rome, neglecting Oriental civilization and 
primitive conditions. Fourth, its arrangement into 
thirteen months makes its application puzzling. For 
practical purposes, therefore, a newer calendar is 
here proposed. It is advised that it be employed in 
connection with the story course in ethics mentioned 
further on. 



168 



TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



APRIL, the Month of WRITERS and DRAMATISTS. 

Represented by CICERO and SHAKESPEARE. 



1, Cicero, Seneca; 

2, Demosthenes; 

3, Lessing; 

4, Montaigne; 

5, Maeterlinck; 



6, Ruskin; 

7, Emerson. 



8, Cervantes; 

9, Manzoni; 

10, Balzac; 

11, Dickens; 
13, Heyse; 
13, Tolstoi; 



15, Kalidasa; 

16, Aeschylus, 

Corneille; 

17, Sophocles, 

Racine; 

18, Euripides, 

Hugo; 

19, Aristophanes, 

Moliere; 

20, Ollanta; 



li,Har't B.Stowe. 21, Dante. 
II. MAY, the Month of SOLDIERS 

Represented by CAESAR and JOAN of ARC. 



22, Flaubert; 

23, Madach; 

24, Ibsen; 

25, Goldoni; 

26, de Vega, 

Calderon; 

27, Wilbrandt; 

28, Goethe. 



1, Cherdolaomer; 8, Miltiades; 



2, Hyksos; 

3, Rameses; 

4, Sennacherib; 

5, Nebuchadnez- 

zar 

6, Cyrus; 

7, Alexander. 

III. 



9, Leonidas; 

10, Hannibal; 

11, Scipio; 

12, Belisarius; 



15, Theodoric; 23, Richard Coeur 

de Lion; 

16, Genghis Khan; 23, Frederick 

17, Boadicea; Barbarossa; 

18, CharlesMartel; 24, Louis IX; 

19, Gustavus 25, Cortez; 
Adolphus; 26, PetertheGreat; 

20, Cromwell; 37, R. E. Lee; 

21, Napoleon. 38, Grant. 



13, Attila; 

14, Charlemagne. 

JUNE, the Month of the WEALTHY. 

Represented by CROESUS and MORGAN. 

8, T.A.A.Roehss; 15, Robert Morris; 23, Russell Sage; 

16, Alex. Hamilton; 33, C. W. Field; 

17, T. J. Aster; 24, T. W. Mackay; 

18, Vanderbilt; 25, Jay Gould; 

19, P. T. Barnum; 26, J. J. Hill; 

20, A. T. Stewart; 27, E.H.Harriman; 
31, IVanamaker. 38, Rockefeller. 



1, Aurungzebe; 

2, Aristobulos; 

3, Divitiacus; 

4, Harpalos; 

5, Alcibiades; 

6, Atticus; 

7, Maecenas. 

IV, 

Represented by COLUMBUS and FRANCES WRIGHT d'ARUSMONT. 



9, Inigo Jones; 

10, Cecil Rhodes; 

11, Fouque; 

12, Madero; 

13, Fugger; 

14, Rothschild. 



JULY, the Month of PIONEERS. 



1, Xenophon; 
3, Nearchus; 

3, Marco Polo; 

4, VascodeGama; 11, Champollion; 

5, Peter the 12, Livingston; 

Hermit; 

6, FrancisXavier; 13, Magellan; 



8, Sir Walter 15, Pizarro; 33, Adm. Perry; 

Raleigh; 16, Ponce de Leon; 23, Lewis and 



9, Sir Francis 

Drake; 
10, Du Chaillu; 



17, Hernando de Clark; 

Soto; 34, Peary: 

18, Seigneur 2.5, Shackleton; 

d'Iberville; -26, Booker 

19, HenryHudson; Washington; 
30, Samuel de 27, Miss Willard; 

Champlain; 



1, Abraham. li, Cook, Tasman. 21, Cortes. 28, Neal Dow. 

V. AUGUST, the Month of PHILOSOPHERS. 

Represented by PLATO and HYPATIA. 

8, Thos. Aquinas; 15, Hegel, Green; 32, Condillac; 



1, Pythagoras; 

2, Epicurus; 

3, Zeno; 

4, Plutarch; 

5, M. Aurelius; 

6, Lucretius; 

7, Plotinos. 

VI. 



9<Grotius; 16, Schopenhauer; 23, Comte; 

10, Spinoza; 17, Nietzsche; 24, Bergson; 

11, Descartes; 18, Christ. Krause; 25, Darwin; 

12, Leibnitz; 19, Bostroem; 26, Spencer; 

13, Hume, Mill; 20, Berkeley; 27, Karl Pearson; 
li. Bacon. 21, Kant. 2S, William James. 

SEPTEMBER, the Month of ART. 



1, Praxiteles; 
3, Apelles; 

3, Guido Reni; 

4, Correggio; 

5, Titian; 

6, Era Angelico; 
7, Leonardo da 

Vinci. 



Represented by RAPHAEL and BEETHOVEN. 



8, Rubens; 

9, \^elasquez; 

10, Corot; 

11, Turner; 

12, Muncaksy; 

13, Hoffman; 

14, Hunt, Watts. 



15, Bach; 

16, Mozart; 

17, Mendelssohn; 

18, Schubert; 

19, Chopin; 

20, Brahms; 

21, Wagner. 



32, Verdi; 
S3, Gounod; 

34, Liszt; 

35, Rubinstein; 
26, Grieg; 

87, Tchaikowsky; 
28, Macdowell. 



CONCLUSION 



169 



VIT. OCTOBER, the Month of INVENTORS. 

Represented by ROGER BACON and Mme. CURIE. 

1, Archimedes; 8, Gutenberg; 15, Morse; 22, Edison; 

2, Daedalus; 9, Hatch, Fulton; 16, Reis, Bell; 23, The Lumieres; 

3, Daguerre; 10, Watt; 17, McCormick; 24, Mergenthaler; 
4,.Tacquard; 11, Palissy; 18, Eads; 25, Holland; 

5, \'aucanson; 12, Whitney; 19, Metchnikoff; 26, Zeppelin; 

6, Montgolfier; 13, Goodyear; 20, Burbank; 27, The Wrights; 

7, Fahrenheit. li.Elias Howe. 21, Horace Wells. Z8, Marconi. 

VIII. NOVEMBER, the Month of PHILANTHROPISTS. 

and TEACHERS. 

Represented by GEORGE MUELLER and SOCRATES. 

1, W.L.Garrison; 8, F. Nightingale; 15, Diogenes; 22, Cotton Mather; 

2, Geo. Peabody; 9, Dorothea Dix; 16, Origen; 23, Tim. Dwight; 

3, T. Oglethorpe: 10, Jane Addams; 17, Jerome; 24, James McCosh; 

4, Montefiore; 11, Harvard; 18, Abelard; 25, Noah Porter; 

5, F. Crittenton; 12, Henry Bergh; 19, Petrarch; 26, Horace Mann; 

6, Mrs. Fry; 13, Peter Cooper; 20, Comenius; 27, Mark Hopkins; 

7, St. Elisabeth, li, Carnegie. 21, ThomasAmold. 28,Chas. IV. Eliot. 

IX. DECEMBER, the Month of EPICS and POETS. 

Represented by HOMER and JELULADIN. 



(15, Vedic Hymns; 22, Compoamor; 



4, TheDionysiaca 

5, The Eddas; 

6, The Kalevala; 

7, Virgil' sAeneid 



16, Pentaur; 

17, Pindar; 

18, Horace; 



1, Ramayana; 8, Lusiad; 

2, Shah Nameh; 9, Roland; 

3, Bidasari; 10, Jerusalem 
Delivered; 

11, Stagnelius's 
Blenda; 19, Japanese 

12, Arany's Toldi; Poems 

13, Mistral's 20, Nahuatl 
Mirfiio: Hymns 

li:,Milton,Vondel. 21, The Psalms. 

X. JANUARY, the Month of STATESMEN 

Represented by MOSES and QUEEN ELIZABETH 



23, Heine; 

24, Hugo; 

25, Tegner; 

26, Carducci; 
37, Tennyson; 

28, Longfellow. 



1, Confucius; 



2, Manu; 

3, Sargon; 

4, Menes; 

5, Solon; 

6, Lycurgus; 

7, Pericles. 

XI 



8, Haroun al 

Raschid; 

9, Justinian ; 

10, Charles V: 

11, Philip II; 

12, Louis XIV; 

13, Henry VIII; 

14, Innocent III. 



15, Richelieu; 



22, Diaz; 



16, Kossuth; 23, Washington; 

17, Kosciusco; 24, Franklin; 

18, Savanarola; 85, Jefferson; 

19, Francia; 26, JeffersonDavis; 

20, Simon Bolivar; 27, Pres. Wilson: 

21, Garibaldi. 28, Lincoln. 

FEBRUARY, the Month of RELIGIOUS LEADERS. 

Represented by JESUS and PAUL, 



1, Mencius; 

2, Gautama; 

3, Zoroaster; 

4, Mahomet; 

5, Isaiah; 

6, Tamehameha; 

7, Numa. 



8, St. Teresa; 

9, Mme. Guyon; 

10, Fenelon; 

11, Boehme; 

12, Theologia 

Germanica; 
13,Tauler; 



15, St. Augustine; 22, Swedenborg; 



16, St. Francis 

17, St. Bernard; 

18, Loyola; 

19, Heloise; 

20, Calvin; 



1, Euclid; 

2, Tycho Brake: 

3, Newton; 

4, Herschel; 

5, Laplace; 

6, Kepler; 

7, Galileo. 



li.Thos.A'Kempis. 21, Luther. 

XIL MARCH, the Month of SCIENTISTS 
Represented by COPERNICUS and HUMBOLDT 



23, Fox, Penn; 

24, Ann Lee; 
35, Ballington 

Booth: 

26, Mrs. Eddy; 

27, Felix Adier; 

28, Wesley. 



8, Vojta, Ampere: 15, Helmholtz; 22, Huxley; 

9, Cuvier; 16, Asa Gray; 23, Averroes; 

10, Lavoisier; 17, Audubon; 24, Hippocrates; 

1 1 , Harvey ; 18, Lyell ; 25, Jenner ; 

12, Boerhave: 19, Agassiz; 26, Koch; 

27, Coke- 

28, Blackstone. 

INTERCALARY DAYS, of WOMEN. 

1, Aspasia; 2, Cornelia; 3, Monica; 4, Mme de Stael; 5, Harriet Martineau; 
6, Margaret Fuller Ossoli. 



13, Leeuwenhoeck; 20, Darwin; 

14, Linneus. 21, Oliver Lodge. 



170 TEACHERS' PROBLEMS SOLVED 



6. STORY COURSE IN ETHICS. 

Objective methods in the kindergarten and primary 
school has adopted as its centre the child, so must its 
value of stories in impressing points is unquestioned, 
and yet the high schools have not made definite pro- 
vision therefor. Practical class-room ethics, the chief 
practical interest of the teacher, will be most efficiently 
subserved if it be not only taught objectively, but also 
systematically. For this object the writer has issued 
a book called "Stories for Young Folks,^' adapted; by 
double index, to rapid consultation at an emergency 
by parent or teacher, and also presenting a coherent 
scheme of a twenty weeks' story course in practical 
pupil-ethics in the class-room, at home, and among 
companions. It is illustrated, and is followed by an 
English translation of the two simple classics of an- 
tiquity in this field, which, strangely enough, are not 
accessible otherwise; namely, Prodicus' "Choice of 
Hercules," and Kebes' "Picture." This was evidently 
the type of moral story Bunyan followed in his famous 
"Pilgrim's Progress." This "Picture" has the advan- 
tage, however, of being undenominational in practical 
religion, and suited to the intellectual quest of the 
student. The book contains also a careful scheme by 
which the teacher can conveniently discuss a different 
topic each day of the term. The illustrations make the 
book welcome to pupils. 



^iiort ^torieg for ^oung jFoIfes^ 

and for tbeir Parents, CcacHers, Triends, and Clerdvmen. 

Oitb tbe Srccb Pilgrtm's Progress, by Kebes, and the Choice of l^ercules, by Prodicus. 
Handsomely illostfatcd by Kathefine Brauer, and Meta Spreen 

By Kenneth $vi^an Qutbric, 

A.M., Harvard; Ph.D., Tolane; M.D., Medico-Chirurgical, Phila. 

The object of this compilation is not to form a 
positive course in moral inspiration, but to furn- 
ish the child, the parent and the teacher with an 
accessible treasury of apposite, well-selected ob- 
jective illustrations for the frequent, but unexpected 
urgencies when a moral point needs to be enforced 
in a convincing and memorable, and therefore, in 
an alluring manner. 

The stories have been selected not only from trad- 
ition, but also from contemporary life. The biogra- 
phy of Lincoln has fiirnished many unusual lessons. 

Complete indexes by name and by subject enable 
the teacher or parent to locate the most applicable 
of th« 125 stories at a glance. 

Being chosen from a practical teacher's stand- 
point, they cover not only moral common-places, 
but also the till now neglected definite school-room 
urgencies, such as biting of nails, caricaturing, hazing, 
wilful destruction of property, shamming sick, borrowing, 
not going straight back home, etc. 

For those who desire a Story Course in Social Eth- 
ics, the matter has been grouped into 80 graded les- 
sons, or 4 a week for the usual term of 20 weeks. 

It makes a splendid gift for all boys and girls. 

Prof. Max B. Greensteiii, Washington Irving High, N.Y.C, says 
Your idea is good, and is well carried out. Both as parent and teacher, 
I feel the book will be an inspiration and help to me. Its basic principle 
the improvement of character through the story, follows accepted mod! 
ern practice and theory. 

Attractively printed and bound, post-paid, net, $1.10 

Cbe gotJiparati^je Citerature Press, 

p. O. BOX 75, GRANTWOOD, N. J. 



Cbe Spiritual m^%%mi of Citerafure, 

A Manual of Comparative Literature, 
With Outlines for Study, and Lists of Lnportant Books* 

By H^nnctb Sylvian GutDrie, 

A.M., Harvard; Ph.D., Tolane; M.D., Medico-Chifufgical, Phila. 

A fascinating Guide to Reading for every Reader, 
Suitable for Literary Clubs, Institutes, Schools, Colleges. 

It forms an unusually liberal education in Literature. 

It gives tlie spiritual gist of the world's best lyric poetry. 

It shows where the greatest thinkers agreed or differed. 

It enables you to form mature literary judgments. 

It directs your efforts to the most fruitful fields. 

tbc Racial Contributions to the moria's Tdcals 

are gathered from Hindu, Persian, Muhammadan, Mon- 
golian, Egyptian, Babylonian, Zoroastrian, Greek, Mex- 
ican, Malagasy, Slav, and Icelandic Sources. 
Ci)c Great Ccgcnds of tbc UPorld 

are studied in their elaborations by Aeschylos, Plato, 

Kschemisvara, Dante, Calderon, Goethe, Shelley, Quinet 

Tennyson, Longfellow, Hardy, Moody, and others. 

Cbc Great lUoria-Bramas of Salvation 

by Kebes, Augustine, Spenser, Bunyan, Byron, Ibsen, 
Hugo, Tolstoi, Krasinsky, Madach, Wilbrandt and 
Campoamor and others are explained in simple words. 

Recommended by Vice-Chancellor Hall, of Sewanee. 

Dr. Matthew Woods, of Philadelphia, writes of it: 

I have carefully gone over the manuscript of Dr Guthrie's 
exceedingly interesting book, and have found in it, com- 
bined with much original thought, the learning of a stud- 
ious life. It cannot fail to make a profound impression. 

Net price, 350 pages, cloth bound, post-paid, $ l.f . 

Each Copy is inscribed by the Author; to get a copy, write name and address 
on this sheet, tear it off, and forward it, with the money, to him. 

Cbe €oittparati«)e Dterature Pre$$, 

p. O. BOX 75, GRANTWOOD, N. J. 



JPerronife tf)e ^imple=f)earteb 

A Breton Legend, after Souvestre, by 

Bennett) ^plban (gutfjrie. 

This legend is, by the experts, considered to be one 
of the chief bases of the other Holy Grail legends, for 
the reason that it claims a definite location, the castle of 
Kerglas, near Vannes. After years of effort. Dr. Guthrie 
succeeded in locating it, made some sketches, and has 
reproduced one of them as frontispiece. 

The story is of absorbing interest to all. The more 
mature minds are charmed and refreshed by its contact 
with nature, while the interest of the young is held by 
the skill of the telling of the story. It has never failed to 
arouse and hold the interest of groups of people. 

It is simply, but attractively printed and bound, and 
forms a handsome presentation booklet, suitable as gift 
for birth- days or holiday seasons. The net price is 55 
cents, postage paid. 

APPREQATIONS 

*It is a most chafming tale related in a fascinating 
way. The style is so breezy and original that it is calcul- 
ated to charm both old and young. Every child should 
be entitled to peruse this beautiful legend.* 

Florence van der Veer- Quick, London. 

*I am very glad to hear that you are to publish the 

story of Perronifc; for due to its action and veiled moral 

it will be enjoyed by both young and old. We need more 

of such charming old legends for readers to-day.' 

Jane Havenf High School Principal 
Net price, post-paid, 55 cents. 

®f)e Comparatibe l^iterature ^ress 

p. O. BOX 75, GRANTWOOD, N. J, 



asi tfje Supreme ^cJjool of ILiit 

or, a tKbeorp of JProsresfgibe i^oralitp. 
By Raines Saraine Smith. 

It discusses the present-day problems of Love and Mar- 
riage from the educational stand-point, and is the first 
complete application of the genetic principle to psychol- 
ogy, ethics, education, marriage, love, and sociology. 
I. GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY 
Psychology as Triune: Consciousness, the total Individ- 
uality, and Biographic Development. 

IL PROGRESSIVE MORALITY 
A new genetic solution of the age-long controversy be- 
tween the rival Theories of Ethics 

HL BIOGRAPHIC EDUCATION 

As Genetic Psychology forces Ethics to become Genetic, so 

this involves Continuous Education, which culminates 

in Marriage, Child-Training and Bereavement* 

IV, EDUCATIONAL MARRIAGE 
Present Matrimonial Evils. — Elimination of Organized 
Ignorance. — Elimination of Celibacy. — Educational 
Divorce. — The Family as a Republic, no longer a Tyr- 
anny. — Matrimonial Suggestions. 

V. EDUCATIONAL LOVE 

Indissolubility of Educational Marriage. — The Self-Sur- 
render of Uniting Love. — The Dramatic Roles of Disci- 
plinary Love. — The Assimilation of Consoling Love. 

A book of ideals for those thinking of contracting marri- 
age, and of help for the reorganization of existing ones. 

Prof. J^. ?|. J^ovnt of New York University writes 

You seem to have hold of a very constructive idea. 

Net price, cloth bound, post-paid, $1.10 

EMPFIELD BOOK COMPANY, 
Box 4, Lamott, Pa. 



